Pathogen

Over half of the adult population have periodontal disease in their lifetime. This disease can be serious, as it leads to the loss of teeth and deterioration of gums and bone in the mouth. According to a 2012 study by the Center for Disease control and prevention, out of two patients at least one was diagnosed with periodontal disease (1). Typically periodontal disease is seen in adults, and also in other patients that seem to have systemic disorders in patients (10). The way to treat this…

immune system. Immunosuppressive drug containing ciclosporin, azathioprine, and corticosteroids or antithymocyte globulin are prescribed to prevent rejection on donor lungs. However, the immune system is weaken and more vulnerable to infectious pathogens. In context of innate immune responses, a literature demonstrated that an inhibition of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) debilitate allograft rejection, while TLR activation and recognition by innate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) impedes…

and diseases, that swept the Native American people. With the movie never mentioning the severity of disease, Indians were left unmentioned when being killed by the masses, by the pathogens introduced by the English foreigners. Their extensive isolation “from the rest of the world and therefore lacking immunity to pathogens introduced by the intruders, the devastation was even more severe” (Merrrell 543). While Pocahontas portrayed voluminous and happy life among the Indians, Merrell claims…

One of the theories in global health, is unintended consequences of purposive (or social action) which was first introduced by Robert Merton. His theory explains that all social interventions are accompanied by consequences. Some of these consequences can be foreseen and preventative measures can be taken, however, this is not always the case. Regardless, people have to endure the repercussions whether they are intentional or unintentional; and evaluation of social theory is necessary in order…

gastrointestinal bacteria have many important functions in humans. Some of them include nutrient metabolism, xenobiotic and drug metabolism, maintenance of structural integrity of the gut mucosal barrier, immunomodulation, and protection against pathogens. Scientists studying the human intestinal tract have discovered that there are over 35,000 microflora species in the human gut. For nutrient metabolism, GI microflora works to get nutrients from the breakdown and fermentation of carbohydrates,…

Today, we know how the plague was spread and why it spread from Asia to Europe. In the 14th century, no one understood it. They did not understand how they got it, or how it spread from person to person. Some people thought that looking into the eyes of the sick would make themselves sick. The doctors that would tend to the sick attempted to treat it by bloodletting and actually puncturing and trying to drain the swollen skin buboes. Many people would avoid all human contact with the sick,…

The theory behind immunisations originated in Europe in the 1800’s, after an English doctor, Edward Jenner used a small dose of the smallpox virus to protect against smallpox in 1796 . Since then, immunisation, the process of fortifying an individual’s immune system against an agent has become a common method used to prevent diseases in men, women and children. Childhood immunisation has become a widely debated topic in Australia in recent years. It’s especially important for children to be…

the inner mucus layer is recognized by innate immune cells termed dendritic cells. Dendritic cells contain pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) that recognize microbial associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). Both pathogen and commensal microbiota contain MAMPs such as peptidoglycans, lipopolysaccharides and flagella. Activation of TLRs sets off a signalling cascade of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) to initiates the production of cytokines that results in an…

Epidermis is the tough outermost layer of the skin, and is made up of the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. It is mainly comprised of the protein keratin, squamous epithelial cells and melanin. The epidermis acts as a waterproof barrier and the melanin absorbs ultra violet light to prevent burns, inflammation, and swelling of the skin. Dermis is the lower layer of the skin that contains collagen, nerve fibers, lymph vessels, and blood…

Ranked fifth in worldwide production amongst other fruit crops and often considered the “king of fruits”, the mango is well known for its delicious, succulent taste and many nutritional qualities. It is classified within the genus Mangifera belonging to the Anacardiaceae family which includes the cashew, pistachio, and other edible fruits. The Mangifera species can be found in abundance in the islands of Indonesia, the Malay Peninsula, Indochina, and the Philippines (Litz 2009). In particular,…