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The basal ganglia (BG) receives input at the striatum from the cortex and provides output from the pallidum, in particular the globus pallidus internal (GPi) via the ventral anterior and lateral (VA/VL) thalamic nuclei to the cortex – forming a motor loop.1,2 There are two major pathways in this motor loop, the direct and indirect pathways.1,2 The direct pathway originates in the cortex, projecting to the striatum of the BG which consists of the caudate and putamen nuclei.1,2 The striatum…

balance system, proprioceptors, and the brain. The visual system contains oculomotor neurons and eye muscles while the balance system contains semicircular canals, otolith organs, vestibular nerves and nuclei. The proprioceptors include the spinal cord, muscles, and joints in the body while the brain contains the cerebellum and cerebral cortex. All these components work together to maintain the human sense of balance in all individuals. When there is disconnect in any of these systems the…

thing in common, the brain. The brain is the control center for human’s entire body, giving signals at all times on what to do or how to respond. Nerves that connect your body to the brain are responsible for gather information to give to the spinal cord to give to the brain so that it can make sense of the message. The adult brain weighs about 3 pounds, and is made of three major parts: the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The forebrain is divided into three more parts called the cerebrum,…

Richard the Third is a monumental piece of history for more than just being the last king of York. Richard died in the battle of Bosworth Field and is known as one of the top fighters of his time. However, years later when a team of anthropologists and archaeologists finally found his lost remains they came across an unbelievable discovery; Richard had extreme scoliosis. Scoliosis is a disease that damages the curvature of the spine leading to other health complications. Richard’s form of this…

in. For all she knew was her husband might have taken it from the safe. Apart from her, only he knew the key code. He might have traded it with Wein Xin. “Where’s your husband?” “He’s going to Kansas City to participate in a conference with Dr Alex Cord. That was Roger’s cue to get into action. He got off his hands. And at what seemed as a pounce at light speed, Roger was at Margarita’s side. And Roger’s assault surprised her, too. So much for hiss word. Margarita’s split second of hesitation…

known by upper and lower motor neuron degeneration. As the upper motor neurons deteriorate, the cells “suffer from a retrograde axonal loss with secondary myelin pallor and gliosis”. While these changes are more severe at the brainstem and upper spinal cord, they…

structural support and flexibility. The cervical spine consists of seven vertebrae and is located at the base of the skull. Its function is to support the skull, enabling head movements back and forth, and from side to side, as well as protecting the spinal cord. Each cervical has its own functions. Say if the injury happened at The C2 - C3 junction of the spinal then Allen have limited mobility in both their flexion and extension which is (flexion is the movement of the chin toward the chest…

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, more formally known as ALS or Lou Gehrig’s disease, is a neurodegenerative disease, causing the selective degeneration of both upper and lower motor neurons, as well as those in the motor cortex portion of the brain, which ultimately leads to the limited to complete loss of all voluntary muscle function. Now while the main pathology of ALS is the selective death of the previously mentioned motor neurons, more recent studies have suggested that the homeostatic…

the past, Walking or locomotion has been thought to be controlled by only the brain, and the spinal cord was merely a connector between the brain and the motor structure. The brain does control the voluntary muscle movement, but it works in conjunction with the spinal cord. It is now accepted that the motor patterns and rhythms governing locomotion in mammals are controlled by an area of the spinal cord known as the Central Pattern Generator (CPG) (Kiehn, 2006). The neural circuits in the CPG…

Many people have not heard of these diseases and maybe neither have you, but just imagine having to be a prisoner in your own body or losing your mind until you hurt yourself or someone else. When a disease like Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is diagnosed a person suffers from a progressive Neurodegenerative disease where their muscles slowly become weaker until they are bound to a wheelchair or a bed, but there is one thing that is unaffected and that is their brain. They stay conscious…