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141 Cards in this Set
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The nature nurture debates |
Is personality or human behavior a matter of genetics (nature) or environment (nurture)? Question is foolish, irrelevant, a massive scientific mistake and unanswerable (not an either or question) We don't ask these questions anymore |
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What is the best characterization of thr nature nurture debate |
Nature and nurture are transactional -genes and environment can work seperately, together, reciprocally influence one another or interactionly
While we can talk as if they are separable factors; in fact Both may be operating separately but in parallel or in interaction
Example epigenetics (molecules) |
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Phenotype |
Is what we see
Phenotype= genotype x (interacting with) environment
Are not simply the additive results of genetic and environmental effects -they are more properly thought of as interactive in some way |
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Gene environment interactions |
Certain environments will have different effects depending on the person's genotype (one environment genes are expressed and in other environments they arnt)
Sometimes genes and environment have a direct interaction changing personality
Ex. the diathesis stress model of schizophrenia (huge genetic component) -schizophrenia depends on the nature of the environment -schizophrenia rises as socal class falls (huge stresser) -genetic predisposition and a stressful situation u will develop it |
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Gene environment correlation |
People change the environment and the environment changes the person (the person's genetics changes environment and environment live in influences the expression of predious position)
Sometimes it is impossible to seperate genetic and environmental effects (coecure together)
Ex. The athlete, musician, savant in thr house -child banging on pots and pans so kid is taken to music lessons and does well and then buy a piano and child practices all the time) |
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The complete form of phenotypic expression |
Phenotype= genotype x environment + genotype environment correlations + enotype environment interactions
In this expression some of the terms will be low or zero because they are not in influence -meaning that the contribution of the term to the phenotype will be negligible |
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Heritability (h²) -genetic influences |
Amount of observed individual diffrtence (variability) in some characteristics that can be accounted for by genetic differences
Is a population statistic that tells us the proportion of a phenotype in a population that is due to genetic factors
Is not the same as inheritance (individual statistic)
Will differ depending on the population and methods used to collect data -vary across populations and time |
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Environmental influence (c²) |
Extent to which observed phenotypic differences can be tranced to environmental differences between people
Is a population statistic thar indicates the proportion of a phenotype in a population is due to environmental factors
Estimates will differ depending on the population and methods used to collect data -vary across populations and time |
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Phenotype measurement with h² and c² |
Phenotype= h² + c² + e² (measurement error)
Measurement error is always significant and large
h² and c² are inversely related (as one goes up the other goes down) |
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Differences in h² and c² |
When enviroments are simular h² is typically higher than c² -homogeneous environments don't change much between different individuals
When enviroments are variable c² will be higher than h² -heterogenous environments change between individuals even when close together |
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How do you calculate heritability and environmental effects |
Need to collect lots of data of MZ and DZ twins
H² and c² can be calculated by using the degree of similarity of a trait in MZ and DZ twins
MZ are genetically identical and share 100% of their genetic endowment (cellular level)
DZ twins share 50% of their genetic endowment and are no more similar than siblings |
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How are the differences in similarity between MZ and DZ twins crucial for establishing genetic effects |
If genetics influence a personality characteristic, then MZ twins should be more similar on the characteristic than DZ twins (inheritance)
If not there is less genetic effect |
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There are many studies and cases where MZ and DZ twins are reared apart. These study show... |
Studies where MZ and DZ twins are reared together and apart provide clear evidence that genetic effects endure across different circumstances
MZ twins raised apart were about as similar to one another as were MZ twins raised together -correlations indicate similarity between twins were in the .45 to .50 range
For DZ twins should find a large correlation when reared together and small correlation when reared apart |
Scandinavia and britian |
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Formulas for estimating heritability h² in twins |
Compare MZ and DZ twins raised together h²= 2(Rmz- Rdz)
- h²= 2 (correlation of MZ - correlation DZ) -is a conceptual formula -cant do this statistically because u can match mz twins to dz twins
Compare MZ twins reared apart h²= Rmza -h²= correction of MZ twins |
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What do these two conceptual formulas assume |
Equal environmental influence between MZ and DZ twins -when DZ twins are same gender they tend to be raised like MZ twins
The twin samples are representative of the population
Both assumptions seem to be met for variables that have been studied |
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What is the assumption of Rmza formula used in adoption studies |
Assumption is that the twins have been raised in different environments
This may not be true -often selective placement happens when teens are being adopted
-adoption studies also assume that adoptive families are similar to families who do not adopt |
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Burcas and Cretu |
Found in a sample of MZ and DZ twins that genetic correlations between perfectionism and Neuroticism ranged from .58 to .73 Non shared environmental correlations ranged from .22 to .27 There may be a common additive genetic effect between perfectionism + neuroticism that explains between 18% to 32% total variance in phenotype Common unique environmental effects explained little between 7% to 35% Suggests that Heritablelitly (32%- 46%) between perfectionism and Neuroticism Perfectionism and Neuroticism show a common genetic influence |
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Heritability of 5 factor model triats |
Each factor has a moderate heritability (35% to 65% variance)
Greater effect of nonshared environment on other traits |
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Shared environmental influence (Environment refers to any part of phenotype not accounted for by genetics) |
Aspects of the environment generally similar for all children in a family, neighborhood, community |
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What makes up the shared environment |
Physical properties (nature of home, number of books, or crime in neighborhood, drugs, poverty, disorganization, level of stimulation)
Psychological properties (home atmosphere, parenting practices, depression, chaos in the home)
Social factors (parents SES, religion, urban or rural, neighbour's, extended family) |
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Non shared environmental influences |
Individual experiences that make siblings different from one another |
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What factors contribute to non shared environmental influences |
Family factors ( birth order, gender composition of the family, Differential parent treatment)
External factors (experience with teachers, peer interactions, friends, hobbies, clubs) |
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How are shared and non shared environmental influences measured |
NSE= 1- Rit (correlation between one siblings pair or twin pair to another) -reared together)
SE= 1 - (h+NSE) -h is heritability
These are conceptual formulas |
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Is shared or non shared environmental influences more important |
Non shared environments appear to be more important for personality development than family based shared experiences
40% of variations in personality due to genetic factors
40% due to the effects of non shared environments
0% due to shared environments
The rest is due to measurement error |
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Why is there such large measurement error |
such large error cause hard to measure environmental factors that everyone agrees upon lack of definition Validity |
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What did Reiss study |
Examined processes linking genetic, family and social influences on personality development during adolescence
Separated out effects of parenting common to sibling in a family from effects of parenting unique to each sibling |
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What were Reiss conclusions |
Much of the parenting unique to each child seems to be due to genetic characteristics (child driven processes) Differences in parental treatment reflect different behaviors evoked in the parent by that child (child driven processes) |
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Shared family influences are important as are the experiences outside the family |
But It is the experiences unique to each child that are important in influencing personality development rather than the experiences shared by children in the same family Ex. Reactive gene environment correction -somthing in child pulls out certian behaviors from parents who reacts to child behavior which then strengths influences -phenotype is displayed causes parents to respond in a certain way |
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Difficult temperaments |
Characterized by negative mood, withdrawal, low adaption to change, high intensity reactions and low regularity -low in sociability, high in activity level and high in emotionability -stable into adolescence and are associated with internalizing (depression) and externalizing (act out) problems |
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Negative parenting and difficult temperament |
There is a relationship between difficult children temperament and negative parenting is well known Difficult temperament puts children at risk for negative parenting (child driven effects) Negative parenting can influence child's fearfulness, irritability and anger (parent driven effects) |
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Genetic component to negative parenting and temperaments |
Both negative parenting and difficult temperaments are genetically linked since many of the components (high N and low E) show genetic contribution
75% of variance in difficult temperaments in children is due to genetic effects
Rest is due to non shared environmental influences Goodness of it |
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Miccalizzi, Wang, saudino (2015) |
Examined whether difficult child temperament at age 2 predicted negative parenting at 2 and 3 and whether negative parenting at 2 predicted difficult temperament at 2 and 3 Looking at interaction between the two What is the causal relationship between the two |
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What did Miccalizzi, Wang, saudino (2015) do and results |
Parents of MZ and DZ twins completed measures of difficult temperament (easi) and frequency of narrative parenting when the twins were age 2 and 3
The was significant stability in temperament and parenting as well as cross influence -stable and mutually interactive |
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What is EASI temperament survey |
Emotionality Activity level Sociability Impulsively |
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Cross lag panel design |
U get stability coeffienct from 1 panel to the next
Cross lag panel correlation -negative parenting at age two predicts difficult at age 3 -diffuclt temperament at age 2 predicts negative parenting at 3
This is a reactive gene environment correlation |
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Phenotypes reflect two types of relations between genotype and environment |
Genotype- environment interactions
Genotype environment correlations
-both are are detected in population not individuals
-sometimes difficult to distinguish
-only through careful measurement of both effects can a distinction be made |
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Genotype- environment correlations |
Where influence of genetic and the environment are intertwined and impossible to separate Ex. This class is a gene environment correction (selectively gone to university because genotypes of intelligence) |
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Gene environment interactions |
People respond differently to the same environment because of their genotype
-impact of environment varies depending on the person's genotype
-environment and contextual scaffolding and people with cogntive impairments |
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Gene environment interactions and depression |
?? |
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Genotype environment correlations environmental aspect |
Became clear that measures of environmental influence are not totally environmental
-what was thought to be environmental factors actually had genetic components (both are mutually interacting with each other)
-peer and parent ratings (differ even in same environment)
-people's personalities changed environments they were in and how described those environments
-peoples personalities change environmental that they are in and these environments change them |
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When do genotype environment correlations happen |
When people with a certain gene are in an environment that fosters or not the expression of characteristics associated with that gene
-because genes and environment occur together it is difficult to seperate individual effects |
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What are the 3 kinds of gene environment correlations |
Passive Reactive Active |
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What is passive gene environment correction |
Parents provide both the genes and a favorable or unfavorable environment that allows for (or not) the expression of the triat Ex. Parents helped with homework. Showing it's importants |
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Armstrong Carter (2020) |
Mother Child dyads were examined to see whether genetic nurture happens via the Prenatal environment
-used term genetic nurture to describe the potential effect of parents genetics on their childrens educational outcomes via rearing environments
-example of passive gene environment correction (can apply to internally environment) |
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Armstrong Carter (2020) results |
Mother's with more education related genes were generally healthier and more financially stable during pregnancy
Prental conditiona explained 1/3 of the associations between maternal genetics and children's academic and developmental outcome at all ages of 4 to 7
Suggests linkages between genetics, Prenatal environment and a behavioral outcome
Parents provide the genes, Prenatal environment (and probably the external environment) to influence educational outcomes |
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Reactive gene environment correction |
Parents and others react to child's behavior reinforcing it or not
Somthing about the child is causing parents and others to react to the child These are child driven effects |
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Active gene environment correction |
Child chooses certain activities or people in the environment
A choice that matches their genetically based traits Child driven effects |
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Postive or negative gene environment corrections |
Postive correlation -the environment favors the expression of the genetically based attribute
Negative correlation -conditions were the child is discouraged from behaving in certian ways -environment is not supportive of those genetically based attributes
Children with low levels of a genetically based trait may be in a supportive environment for that trait which causes the less pronounced attributes to develop |
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Gene environment corrections have been found for adolescents perceptions of... |
Parental harshness and antisocial behavior
Parental warmth or conflict
Physical punishment and misbehavior
Family bonding and Neuroticism -if a child has high emotionality but the family responds to it by calming it down there is high bonding
(Assumed that reactive gene environment corrections were examined in these examples) (It us hard to say for any group which of the 3 types of corrections are being invoked) |
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What are the 2 main parts of the nervous system |
Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) -recivies, processes, interprets and stores incoming sensory information and sends out messages to muscles, glands and organs
Peripheral nervous system -handles input and output from the cns -all portions of the nervous system 9utsife of the brain and spinal cord |
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What are the two parts of the peripheral system |
Semantic nervous system (skeletal nervous system) -nerves connected to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system -regulates functioning of blood vessels, glands and internal organs |
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Two divisons of autonomic nervous system |
Sympathic (thoracic lumbar region) - prepares body to expend energy -activivated during flight or fight response -stress reaction
Parasympathetic (cerebral and cocxix area) -restores and conserves energy -returns bdoy to homeostasis |
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What are two neural subdivisions |
Sensory neurons -carries information from sensory organs to CNS -sensory in
Motor neurons -carries information from the CNS to muscles, glands and internal organs -motor out |
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What are the 4 categories that personality differences are reflected in |
Bodily responses -galvanic skin response (how much sweat) -electromyography (evoked response of muscles)
Brain structure -CT scans (gives photo of brain) -MRI (gives photo of brain)
Brain activity (shows changes by moving images) -fMRI -PET -EEG -TMs -evoked potential
Biochemical activity -hormones -neurotransmitters |
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What are some of the scanning methods used to examine Brain structures and activity |
PET
CT
MRI
TMS |
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PET scans (postivie emission tomography) |
Records biochemical changes in the brain as they are happening including cranial blood flow and assess glucose metabolism (how much and where)
-can see which brain areas are active or not during some activity -x ray |
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CT scan (computerized tomography) |
High x ray resolution pictures of thr brain
-can take these images in thin cross sections of the brain
-also called CAT (computerized axial tomography
-Is static -need injections |
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) |
Used for studying body and brain tissue, using magnetic fields and special radio receivers without injecting isotopes |
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fMRI (functional) |
Fast MRI that allows observation of brain activity while the person is doing some activity
Relies on oxygen use |
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What are some problems with MRI studies |
They all rely on volunteers (small sample sizes) |
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TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation) |
Delivers a large current through wires over the head
Current produces a magnetic field which caused neurons under the coil to increase or decrease neural activity
Mimics brain lesions without invasive invasiveness See activation of millions of neurons |
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EEG (electroencephalogram) |
Connect electrodes to scalp
Pick up and amplify electrical impulses under the electrode
-records millions of neurons making it difficult to assess what exactly is going on in the brain (Noise can be reduced with computer programming) |
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Evoked potential |
Put electrode some spot on head and see spike after task in enishiated Shows where and how much of response when task is undertaken When people are doing a task certain areas of the brain become active
Evoked potential is what is being detected by the electrodes |
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Cortical stimulation with microelectrodes |
Needle electrodes can be used to assess the action of or stimulate single neurons or a small group of neurons -used to detect epodemic sezuires |
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Ways of detecting biochemical changes and activity |
Neurotransmitters Hormones
(Depending on location and function hormones and neurotransmitters may not be chemically distinct) |
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What are neurotransmitters |
Chemical substances that are released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity (exciting or inhibiting) of a receiving neuron
-found in CNS, PNS, certain glands (adrenal and pineal)
-can affect mood, memory, sleep pattern, general well being |
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Neurotransmitter effects depend on what |
Type Level of transmitter Location Type of binding receptor -parical (only part of the receiving neuron is receptive) -whole (the whole receiving neuron is receptive) -selective (only allows certain amount of neurotransmitter so slow down nurotranmition) |
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Major neurotransmitters (part 1) |
Serotonin -sleep, appetite, temperature regulation, mood states
Dopamine -voluntary movement, learning, memory, emotion
Acetylcholine -muscle action, cognitive functioning, memory
Epinephrine ? -heart rate increase, slowing of intestinal activity during stress, learning, memory, sleep and wakefulness
(Similar in chemical structure) |
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Major neurotransmitters (part 2) |
GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) -major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Glutamate -major excitatory transmitter -released by 90% of brain neurons |
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What are hormones |
Chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands and released directly into the blood stream and affect the functioning of 9thrr organs
Regulate growth, metabolism, sexual development and behavior, personality |
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Major hormones (part 1) |
Melatonin (pineal gland) -regulate biological rhythms, sleep- wake cycles -secreated/ activated from suprachiasmatic nucleus which is stimaed from sunlight/ darkness detected from eyes (retina)
Oxytocin (pituitary glad) -with vasopressin enhances uterine contraction during childbirth and milk ejection during nursing -contributed to sexual attraction in both sexes -called love hormone |
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Major hormones (part 2) |
Adrenal hormones -located on top of kidneys -involved in emotion and stress (heat, cold, pain, injury, stress) -released by sympathetic nervous system, increases arousal and readys body Sex hormones (gonads and adrenal glands) -androgen in males -estrogens in females -influence development of secondary sex characteristics -progesterone prepares uterine lining for receiving fertilized ovum (Important for personality) |
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2 components of adrenal glands |
Cortex (outer bark) -produces cortisol which increases blood sugar levels and boosts energy -cortisol can scare arteries and cause blockages
Medulla (inner core) -produces Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine |
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Eysencks PEN model |
Psychoticism, extroversion, neuroticism Developed scale to measure these and also developed a theory of the underlying biological predus postions that underly the development of extroversion and Neuroticism |
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What did eysenck argue about the biological model for extraversion (Physiologcial explanations) |
The major differences between introverts and extroverts lay in individual differences in arousal level -specifically arousal of the ascending reticular activating system
little evidence that ARAS differences between introverts and extroverts or differences in arousal level ARAS found in brain stem -extroverts sensitive to incoming info and introverts reactions more mutated |
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What does recent evidence suggest |
That the difference between introverts and extroverts is in their level of arousability Extroverts are more easily aroused than introverts -introverts are slower to be corticaly aroused |
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Know |
Extraversion and neuroticism are similar in that both involve arousal Difference is the quality of thr arousal |
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What did Eysenck argue his theory of neuroticism |
Neurotiscism was related to an overly sensitive sympathetic nervous system to negative emotions and emotion regulation areas of the limbic system (hippocampus, amaygdala, cingulum, septum, hypothalamus) -cingulum found in midbrain under corpus colusuum) This gives rise to negative arousal -fear and anxiety due to an overly sensitivite emotional drive system -gives rise to emotional instability Extoversion is marker by senstive to postive arousal (stimuli) in the same parts of brain -excitement and energy -reward sensitive |
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Recent research of neuroticism |
Recent research is quite consistent with Eysenck theory Those scoring high on neuroticism show -greater startle response to fearful pics -more sensitivite to negative emotions Little evidence that neuroticism reflects activivation of sympathetic nervous system -rather neuroticism reflects reactivity to incoming sensory information (largely negative) -sensitivity to the stimuli that marks emotional unstable from stable |
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What is the Reinforcement sensitivity theory |
Gray argued that personality is due to variations in the functioning of brain systems and brain structure
-what makes people unique are how the brain system functioning causes response differnece
Initially hypothesized 2 brain behavior systems linked to extroversion and Neuroticism
Now argues that there are 3 brain behavior systems that overlap onto the existing PEN model |
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What are the 3 Brain Behavior systems in reinforcement sensitivity theory by Gray |
Fight- flight- freeze system (FFFs) Behavioral approach system (BAS) Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) |
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Fight flight freeze system (only active in some situations) |
Is associated with emotions of fear and reactions to aversive stimuli
Response to an aversive or negative stimuli can be to flee, fight or to freeze
When system is active people are highly fearful and highly avoidant to keep people from aversive situations
The personality factor that reflects these responses are fear and avoidance
Chronic activation of FFFs leads to phobia and panic disorders |
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Behavioral approach system (go for it) (always activie) |
Organized responses to rewarding and pleasurable stimuli - is it the adontic relevance or BAS
Activation makes people sensitive to rewards and regulates reward related behavior
Personality factors that reflect response Activation are optimism, impulsiveness, and anticipatory pleasure
Extreme Activation may lead to addictive behaviors, impulsive high risk behaviors and mania |
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Behavioral inhibition system (always active) |
Underlies resolution of conflictual responses
Increases sensitivity to punishing stimuli
Regulate behavior to avoid negative stimuli
-until conflicts or negative stimuli are removed people will have feelings of anxious, worry, rumination, hyper vigilance, foreboding of imminent danger
-Leads to OCD or generalized anxiety disorder |
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What are the 3 kinds of conflicts that cause both activation of BIS and BAS |
Approach approach -choice A is good and choice B is also good
Approach avoidance -choice A is good and choice B is not so good but might be -avoidance one u give something up
Double Approach avoidance -positive and negative attributes to each alternative |
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What does BIS and BAS activation depend on |
Because all conflicts have rewards and punishments the level of anxiety associated with BIS activation depends on the perception of the rewards and punishments present in any conflict All conflicts with have BIS and BAS activation |
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Too much or too little of BIS activation |
Activation leads to punishment sensitivity and caution
-too much activation leads to fear, withdrawal and generalized anxiety
-too little leads to taking unnecessary risks and impulsivity |
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Too much or too little of BIS activation |
Activation leads to punishment sensitivity and caution
-too much activation leads to fear, withdrawal and generalized anxiety
-too little leads to taking unnecessary risks and impulsivity |
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Reinforcement sensitivity theory with extraversion and Neuroticism |
Activation of the BAS system is more easily activated in extroverted and impulsive people -BAS activation is similar to but not identical to extroversion
Amoung Neurotic people BIS and FFFs activation is more easily and more often found -BIS is similar but not identical to neuroticism
BIS activation is manifested as neurotic introversion -redraw (introversion) because things arnt going right so u become nervous and upset
BAS activation is manifested emotionally unstable extroversion |
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Gray and Eysenck have different conceptualization of impulsivity |
Eysenck -high extroversion and high emotional instability lead to being impulsive
Gray -impulsivity is a failure of the BIS to impede behavior for new and exciting stimuli or a highly active BAS that orients toward high rewards |
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In the BAS and BIS systems why is extroversion and introversion both neurotic |
Because when BIS and BAS system are activated only when there is a conflict
-becomes neurotic because your emotional system is unstable because of the conflict that arises from looking for the punishments and rewards |
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The key difference between high scorers on extroversion and Neuroticism is how and where (in thr brain) they experience emotions |
Extroverts react more strongly to postive emotions and neurotics react more strongly to negative emotions compared to emotionally stable people
The neurotics moodiness and avoidant response can be traced to their high level of emotional reactivity even to minor sources of stress -moods fluctuate because they are highly emotional reactive especially to negative stimuli |
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Cortical differences between introverts and extroverts |
Introverts have thicker right hemisphere prefrontal cortex -more grey matter (more brain as it's more density packed, less brain volume) -brain areas concerned with emotion expression and regulation |
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Cortical differences in neuroticism |
Neurotiscism is associated with less gray matter in the left hemisphere compared to lower scorers particularly so for males
-consistent with other studies showing introverts having lower brain volume than extroverts or people with other traits |
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Amygdala differences between introverts and extroverts |
Extroverts have higher neural volume in the left amygdala then introverts -process happy memories more
(Amygdala is emotion regulation and fear related emotional memory) |
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Amygdala differences with neuroticism |
High scorers on neuroticism had lower volume in the right amaygdala then lower scorers
(Amygdala is emotion regulation and fear related emotional memory) |
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Functional brain differences in neurotic and extrovert people |
Systems sensitive to neuroticism and extroversion are found in the frontal and temperal areas of brain -control consciousness and emotion memory and regulation
The same cortical areas are responsive to postive and negative stimuli but respond differently depending on the personality trait
Extroversion is correlated with frontal and temporal areas controlling postive emotions
Neurotics showed frontal and temportal activation with negative emotions |
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For all people left and right hemispheres show lateral functioning (left and right asymmetry with negative and postive emotions) |
When processing negative emotions the right frontal and prefrontal cortices are more activitie
When processing psotive emotions the left frontal and prefrontal cortices are more active |
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Left right asymmetry with extroverts and Neuroticism |
Extroverts show more left hemisphere activity to postive stimuli than they show right hemisphere activity to negative stimuli
Shy, inhibited children and depressed and neurotic adults show more right hemisphere activity to negative stimuli than they show left hemisphere activity to postive stimuli |
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Extroverts and neurotics differences in amaygdala functioning (processing and recall of emotional memories) |
Extroverts show greater amygdala activity when processing happy faces than neurotics -better memory for happy faces may be do to personality
There is no relationship between processing negative faces and amygdala activity in extroverts or neurotics |
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Neurotransmitter differences between extroversion and Neuroticism |
Those scoring high on extroversion are more sensitive then introverts to the fluctuating levels of dopamine (dopamine trail, associated to seeking rewards)
-extroverts have higher levels of dopamine which is related to reactivity of the CNS to stimulation
Those scoring high on neuroticism are more sensitivite to fluctuating levels of serotonin and to the the level of serotonin than low scorers
-low serotonin levels have been linked to anxiety based disorders such as mood regulation, depression and generalized anxiety disorder (given SSRIs)
-some evidence that serotonin levels in neuroticism may have a genetic base |
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Sensation seeking |
Seeking of varied, complex, and intense sensations and willingness to take physical, social, legal and financial risk for the sake of such experiences |
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Sensation seeking scales 4 sub scales that underly its construct (developed my Zuckerman) |
Experience seeking
Boredom susceptibility
Thrill and adventure seeking
Disinhibition |
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What are high scores on the sensation seeking scale associated with |
Greater smoking frequency Increased drug and alcohol use More varied sexual experience Prefer avant-garde or edgy music Jobs involving risk, danger or excitement
Men score higher than women
Younger (late teen and early 20s) score higher than those older |
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What does new research of sensation seeking show |
Most recent version of scale refers to sensation seeking now as impulsive sensation seeking -concept close to Eysencks psychoticism factor (little restraint, responsibility or inhibition) -psychoticsm looks at more than sensation seeking (bluntung of emotions and anti social) |
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Impulsive sensation seeking is part of an alternative 5 factor model that includes |
Impulsive- sensation seeking Neuroticism- anxiety Aggression- hostility Sociability Activity |
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What differentiates high from low sensation seekers |
The reactivity of nervous system to novel stimuli
-what is seen as a potential threat by low sensation seekers is seen as interesting to high sensation seekers |
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Sensation seeking with BAS and BIS systems |
In anticipation of reward (doing the act) High sensation seekers orient toward stimuli and enjoy intense sensory stimulation (High reactivity= elevated BAS activity+ extroversion)
Low sensation seekers respond in a defensive startle reflex to stimuli suggesting danger and a readiness for reaction (Low reactivity= elevated BIS activity + neuroticism) |
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What does Zuckerman (2008) argue |
That sensation seeking is a result of an interaction between 3 neurotransmitters
-high levels of dopamine (increases exploration of novel stimuli)
-low levels of serotonin (failure to inhbit behavior)
-low levels of norepinephrine and Epinephrine (lessens stress response to novel/ threatening stimuli) |
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Deci and Ryan distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation |
Extrinsic -rewards that are not inherently related to the activity being done -praise, A+, money, gold stars Intrinsic -rewards that are inherently related to the activity being done -reward comes from doing the task well or achieving a certain level of success Sometimes people become to reliant on extrinsic reinforcement and stop experiencing pleasure of doing something for it own sake |
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Know |
Very often the reason why we do somthing in terms of effort, persistence and performance is often more important than what we do |
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What is self determination theory |
Draws on humanistic principles that emphasize the desire to grow, develop and bring about positive change -3 basic needs that bring about postive change |
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What are the 3 needs that bring about postive change |
Autonomy (support) -people must be free to make choices rather than having choices made for them Competence (structure) -people need to feel skilled, achieve mastery at skill-appropriate tasks -feeling effective, able to expand abilities Relatedness (involvement) -meaningful relationships with others, reciprocal relatedness, feeling interconnected |
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What happens when these 3 needs are met |
People will be intrinsically motivated (Perform well, build skills and increase level of well being) -people will happily and willingly participate in some activity |
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What is over justification effect |
Providing rewards for intrinsically enjoyable activities reduces intrinsic motivation |
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Autonomy needs |
People satisfy their autonomy needs when they feel they can act on their own wishes, preferences and desires -the task for others is to support autonomy needs without being controlling |
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How can others support autonomy needs in others |
Provide choices or alternatives Engage initiative -opportunity for people to decide for themselves, without fear of negative consequences for choosing poorly When choice is not possible, verbal understanding can be given |
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How to achieve competency needs |
Task competencies and skills are developed when the task is aimed at the right level, broken into clear and manageable parts and has immediate feedback (Enhances self efficacy and makes person feel task efficacious) G Goal is to create tasks that are optimally challenging -when engaged in such takes they experience a postive state of flow |
-People need tasks that are aimed at their skill level (not too hard and not too easy) -people need to know how to carry out a task and what the results of their action will be |
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What is flow |
Is an experience marked by complete absorption, deep enjoyment, intense concentration and almost an altered state of being completely task involved -being in the zone -feeling it -on fire |
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Interpersonal relationships (relatedness needs) |
Quality of interpersonal relationships increases the likelihood of meeting autonomy and relatedness -people feel connected to others by having other people involved in their lives and activities and visa versa -other people convey an attitude of caring about other person, listening to their concerns, understanding their perspective, conveying a sense of warmth and affection |
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Self efficacy theory |
Essence of personality lies in differing ways in which individuals -perceive situations -develop expectations about near and future outcomes in those situations -display distinct behavior patterns as a result of these perceptions and expectations |
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In self efficacy theory behavior is then explained in terms of people's expectations about... |
Their ability to execute tasks successfully Rewards and punishments for doing or not doing those tasks |
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Perceived self efficacy |
Refers to a person's expectations about their ability to successfully execute a course of action now or in the future |
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High levels of perceived task self efficacy influences |
Which tasks will be attempted and their level of difficulty How much effort will be devoted to the task Persistence in the efforts in thr face of challenges Being calm not anxious during task performance Analytic organization of thoughts |
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People with low sense perceived task self efficacy... |
Often fail to even attempt valued or desired activities Give up when encountering difficults Tend to become anxious during task performance Become rattled and fail to think and act in a calm, analytical, rational manner |
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What are the 4 ways people can build up their sense of self efficacy |
Direct experience
Vicarious experiences of success or failure
Persuasion attempts
Physical and emotional states |
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Direct experience |
Repeated task success builds task competencies and skills -failure has the opposite effect |
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Vicarious experiences of success or failure |
Watching others succeed or fail gives the person an idea of what they can expect if they did the activity -modeling effects -vicarious learning |
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Persuasion attempts |
Other people convince the person that they can successfully complete the task -involves altering efficacy expectations |
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Physical and emotional states |
We read out physical and emotional states and infer and adjust out self efficacy beliefs |
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How does perceived self efficacy differ from self esteem |
Perceived self efficacy is not a global variable -it is task specific -people will have different self efficacy perceptions in different situations Perceived self efficacy is not an abstract sense of personal worth but a judgment of what one can do Reaction between self esteem and performance is weak but relation between Perceived self efficacy and performance is strong |
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How are self efficacy expectations and outcome expectations distinguishable |
Outcome expectations -are if, then beliefs about consequences that will occur if one performs a behavior Self efficacy expectations -beliefs absolutely whether one can do the behavior in the first place Self efficacy expectations occur prior to and are generally more important determinat of behavior than outcome expectations |
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Self regulated |
??? |
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Self regulation in self determination theory |
Motivation can range from intrinsic to extrinsic depending on hoe much autonomy, competency and relatedness the person feels they have |
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Amotivation |
A state of no motivation, people are neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated for a number of reasons |
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What is self regulated |
Means adjusting our behavior and attitudes somewhere alone the intrinsic- extrinsic continuum depending on the situation and the task to be done |
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What are the 4 types of extrinsic motivation |
External regulation -motivation completely under the control of someone else (you must do this) Introjected regulation -behavior is controlled by somthing in ourselves such as guilt, anxiety, fear, self approval, increased self esteem Identified regulation -task to be done is personally meaningful but is done in pursuit of another goal (Writing the class essay) Intergrated regulation -people have internalized the goals and values of the (workplace, organizatiin, lifestyle, family) even tho the activity itself isn't that interesting (While the behavior stays the same, in all these forms there is a shift in attitude about why somthing is being done) |
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What is seen in external and introjected regulation |
The person appears to be involved in the task but they may experience apathy, low levels of creativity and in extreme cases drug abuse, and poor psychological health |
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Know |
People can and will take up uninteresting tasks if the meaning and value behind the task is understood |
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Health behavior and social determination theory |
The more the needs of competency, autonomy and relatedness are met the more likely people are able to.. -quite smoking -manage blood sugar levels -loose weight -exercise regularly -better dental hygiene |
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The pursuit of happiness |
Freely choosing what to pursue, feeling competent in one's endeavors and being meaningfully related to others along the way leads to happiness -an operational definition of becoming self actualized |
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