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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Physical growth in middle childhood |
Boned lengthen and broaden Ligaments are not yet firmly attached to bones ( unusual flexibility) Nighttime growing pains are common Preadolescent growth spurt -girls around 9 to 10 boy around 11 or 12 |
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Teeth in middle childhood |
Between 6 to 12 all primary teeth have been replaced by permanent teeth |
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Delayed growth |
Stunted or delayed growth development inadequate nutrition and medical care -children where malnutrition is not a problem are taller than children who live in countries where it is -Eating disorders |
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3 kinds of Eating disorders |
ARFID (avoidant restrictive intake disorder) AN (anorexia nervosa) BN (bulimia nervosa) |
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Brain development |
Weight of brain increases by 10% -white matter rises steadily in prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes and corpus callosum -gray matter peaks and declines due to pruning
Synaptic pruning and accompanying reorganization and selection of brain circuts leads to effective information processing (gains in executive functions)
Neurotransmitters and hormones may affect brain development and function |
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White matter rising and grey matter declining |
Grey matter contains cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals (where synapses are) White matter is made up of axons which connect different parts of grey matter to each other Higher connectivity (white matter rises) but pruning of synapses (grey matter declines) |
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Motor development during middle childhood |
Physical growth slows down Slower rate of growth results in an improvement of motor skills Children at this age tend to sharpen their abilities to perform both gross motor skills (riding a bike) and fine motor skills (cutting fingernails) |
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Gains in basic gross motor skills |
Flexibility Balance Agility Force
All contribute to improved athletic performance during middle childhood More efficient information processing plays a vital role in children's improved gross motor performance -physical exercise enhances the brain and congtive functioning |
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Gains in fine motor skills |
Writing -mastery of uppercase letters then lowercase -increased legibility Drawing -dramatic gains in organization, detail and representation of depth -ability to copy two dimensional shapes -ability to relate objects to one another as part of an organized whole |
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individual differences in motor skills |
Wide individual difference in children's motor skills reflect both heredity and environment |
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Reasons for individual differences in motor skills |
Body build -taller more muscular children excel at many motor tasks
Family -family income and encouragement affect access to lessons in athletics and motor skills
Gender |
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Gender differences in motor development |
Boys gross motor superiority is due to the social environment rather than genetic advantage Gender stereotypes which affect parental expectations for children performance, largely account for boys superiority on a wide range of gross motor skills Greater emphasis on skill training for girls and attention to their achievements might help increase involvement and performance -educating caregivers about minimal gender differences may help increase girls self confidence and participation |
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Playing more games with rules |
Gains in perspective taking permits a transition to games with rules (egocentrism) These experiences contribute to emotional and Social development |
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Changing in play |
Informal outdoor play Is declining in industrialized countries due to -parental concern about neighborhood safety -competition from TV and other media -the rise of adult organized sports -reduction in recess and physical education in schools Child organized games express distict cultural values |
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Physical activity and education |
Physical activity supports physical and mental health -sense of self worth as physically active capable begins -cogntive and social skills for getting along with others |
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What is Recess is a postivie force for children |
-provides rich context for informal child organized games and social interaction -improves academic performance -linked to decline in classroom disruptions -improves social skills (Improved physical health, academics, social skills, and psychological well being) |
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Adult organized youth sports |
Participation in organized sports outside of school is associated with increased self esteem and social skills
Low SES children tend to have limited access to such programs |
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Criticisms of organized sports |
Overemphasis on competition and adult control -can promote anxiety and avoidance of sports in children The potential for social ostracism of weaker performers especially boys |
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To provide developmentally appropriate organized sports adults should |
Build on children's interests Teach age appropriate skills Emphasize enjoyment Limit the frequency and length of practices Focus on personal and team improvement Discourage unhealthy competition Et children contribute to rules and strategies |
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Rough and tumble play as evolutionary past
-some features of children's physical activity reflect out evolutionary past |
May once have been important for developing fighting skills and help children establish a dominace hierarchy -stable ordering of group members the predicts whole will win when conflict arises
Dominance hierarchies become stable and serve as an adaptive function for limiting aggression amoung group members |
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Rough and tumble play |
Is friendly wrestling, rolling, hitting, chasing and play fighting (while smiling and laughing) Merges in preschool years and peaks in middle childhood Common in many mammals and across cultures Most common in boys Helps establish dominance hierarchy Warm energetic rough and tumble play with fathers is associated with children's favorable adjustment and self recognition |
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Concert operational stage (7-12) |
Children are now able to use operations to solve problems -a system of internal mental actions that underlie logical problem solving
Children's thought becomes logical, flexible and organized
Now able to use conservation and classify
Over comes the limitations of the preoperational stage like Egocentrism, conservation and hierarchical classification |
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Conservation |
Idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain thr same even when their outward appearance changes |
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Ability to use conservation includes the capacity of |
Decentration -ability to focus on several aspects of a problem and relating them rather than centering on just one
Reversibility -the ability to think through a series of steps steps then mentally returning to the starting point |
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Hierarchical classification |
Children at middle age are better able to inhibit their habitual strategy of perpetually comparing two specific categories (roses and tulips) in favor of relating each specific category to its less obvious general category (flowers) |
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Concrete operations |
Are the cogntive structures that emerge around 6 to 7 that are a system of internal, in the head actions Provide the logcjal, mental form of problem solving and reasoning Ability to operate mentally on objects allows the concrete operational child to solve logical problems such as the class inclusion and conservation |
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Class inclusion problem |
Concrete operational children have the knowledge that a subclass cannot be larger than the superordinate class that includes it Between ages 7 and 10 children pass the piagets class inclusion problem (more blue flowers than flowers?) |
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Relational reasoning in concrete operational stage |
Children can now use
Seriation -ability to order items along a quantitative dimension such as length or weight
Transitive influence -the ability to seriate mentally, logically and to deduce necessary conclusions |
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Spacial reasoning |
Piaget found that school aged children's understanding of space is more accurate then preschoolers
Their spacial reasoning improves as illustrated by increasingly accurate congtive maps
By the end of middle childhood children form overall views of large scale spaces and grasp thr meaning of scale and map symbols |
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Seriation task |
10 sticks or 4 apples and ask children to order them
requires a systematic and logcjal approach where the child is able to think of each apple as simultaneous larger then the one before and smaller than the one after
CO children understand transivity of quantitative relations -if A is longer than B and B is longer than C than A is longer than C -PO children can understand this without perceptually comparing |
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Transivity task |
Incloves understanding that if A is bigger then B and B is bigger than C then logically A is bigger then C -requires rational reasoning
Operation development (logical in head problem solving) allows CO children to understand these logcial relations and allows them to decelerate (multi focus) |
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Cogntvie maps |
Mental representations of spaces ability to locate landmarks on maps improves 10 to 12 year Olds increasing grasp scale Substantial individual differences exist, influenced by cultural contexts |
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Limitations of concrete operational thought |
Mental operations are most effective (think logically) when dealing with concrete, tangible information and work poorly with abstract ideas Mastery of concrete operational tasks happens gradually, step by step -not all at once Children seem to work out the logic of each problem seperately (do not come up with general logcisl principles) Gradual mastery of logcial concepts indicates the limitations of concrete operational thinking |
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Conservation task development |
Children in western nations typically acquire conservation of numbers, mass, and liquid between 6 to 7 Conservation of weight between 8 and 10 |
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The impact of culture and schooling on Piaget tasks |
Attending school promotes mastery if piagentian tasks Certain informal, non school expereicnes can also foster operational thought Specific cultural practices (school) promote mastery of certain Piaget tasks like Transitive inference problems or conservation |
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Information processing view |
Some NEO Piagetian theories agree that the Gradual development of operational thought represents expansion of information processing capacity Central conceptual structures enable children to think effectively in wide range of situations NEO Piagetian approaches account for unevenness in cogntvie development |
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What does case's theory propose |
That gains in working memory efficiency explains cogntive changes within than between Piagetian stages |
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Evaluation of concrete operational stage |
Piaget was correct that children come to approach problems in more organized rational ways Disagreement continues over weather this is a continuous improvement or a discontinuous restructuring of thinking Many researchers suspect both types of changes contribute to school age children's advance towards a more comprehensive grasp of underlying principles of logcial thought |
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Metalinguistic awareness |
Thr ability to think about language as a system Contributes to language process in middle childhood |
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Development of language in middle childhood |
Metalingusitic awareness
Vocabulary increases fourfold -reading contributes enormously -children grasp double meanings and come to appreciate riddles and puns
Mastery of complex grammatical contructions -English speaking children use the passive voice -understand infinitive phrase advances
In families who regularly eat meals together, children are advanced in language and literacy development |
Vocabulary growth accelerates, children display more precise and flexible understanding of word meanings
Use more complex grammatical contructions and produce organized, derailed and expressive narratives |
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Infinitives phrases |
To + verb
Joise brought a book to read |
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Gains in pragmatics |
Children can adapt to the needs of listeners in challenges communicative situations
Ability to evaluate the clarity of others messages improves
Narratives advance in organization, detail and expression (Development of theory of mind and no more Egocentrism) |
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Bilingual development ??? -23% of US children 5 to 7 speak a language other than English at home |
Simultaneaous bilinguals -Their parents may expose them to both languages at the same time in infancy and early childhood, making them
sequential bilinguals -preschool and school-age children acquire a second language after they already speak the language of their cultural heritage,
-biligual children sometimes engage in code switching (producing an utterance in one language that contains one or more “guest” words from the other)
-sensitive perid for second language development exists (precise age cant be found)
-higher degree of bilingualism, the greater cognitive gains |
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Benefits of bilingualism |
Children have denser gray mater and white matter in the areas of the brain devoted to language Are better at diverse executive function skills and certain aspects of metalingusitic awareness Children who are simulatanuos bilinguals attain most language milestones on a typical timetable Children who are sequential bilinguals take 1-5 years to attain the competence of native speaking agemates |
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Bilingual education may proceed in the form of.... ???????? |
Two way immersion -
Full immersion -
Partial immersion - |
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Reading and information processing |
Skilled reading draws on all aspects of information processing system Shift from learning to read to reading to learn happens at ages 7 and 8 |
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Teaching children to read |
Whole language approach -present texts in their complete form Phonics approach -first teaches basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds Children learn best with a mixture of both approachs Learning to recognize regulations in the spelling system of a native language also strengthens reading comprehension |
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Mathematic skills |
The quality of children's mental number lines predicts current and later math achievement
A virtual foundation for mathematical development is the emergence of an increasingly accurate and complete representation of numerical magnitudes in a mental number line |
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Teaching math |
Teaching that combines practice in basic skills with conceptual understanding is best Students benefit from extensive opportunities to experiment with strategies and reason about number concepts Arguments about teaching pit drills in computing against conceptual understanding Blend of both approaches is most beneficial East Asian classrooms devote more time to exploring math concepts and less to drill and repetition |
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Typical mental number lines of school age children |
During elementary children's mental number lines expand to the right to include larger whole numbers, in between to include fractions and to the left to include negative numbers |
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Middle age children's theory of mind |
Metacognition improved as children come to view thr mind as an active, constructive agent that selects and transforms info -consequently better understood cogntvje processes and factors influencing them
Mental inferences enable knowledge of false beliefs and second order false beliefs
Recursive thought
Increasing selectivity in the brain regions recruited for thinking about others mental states |
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Recursive thought |
Form of perspective taking that requires the ability to view a situation from at least 2 perspectives
-reason simultaneously about what two or more people are thinking |
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Theory of mind allows children to.. |
Appreciate that people can harbor different Interpretations of the same situation
Become increasingly conscious of how and why mental strategies work
Able to discriminate between good from bad reasoning -weighing possible rather than jumping to conclusions and gathering evidence
Develop a greater appreciation for how and why mental strategies work |
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Second order false belief task |
After relating the story in the sequence of pictures the researcher asks a second order false belief question "Where does Lisa think Jason will look for the letter" Around age 7 children answer correctly thar Lisa things Jason will look under his pillow because Lisa doesn't know that Jason saw her put the letter in the desk |
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Executive functions |
The higher order cognitive processes necessary for the deliberate control of one's thoughts and actions
Emergency in the first year of life and continue to develop into adulthood
Related to maturation of prefrontal cortex (linked to)
Plays a role in 4 phases of problem solving |
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Executive functions include |
Congtvje flexibility -thr ability to shift between multiple conflicting options
Working memory -the ability to keep track of an manipulate information in the mind
Inhibitory control -ability to suppress or inhibit a response |
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Executive functions skills are related to |
Social understanding
School readiness
Academic achievement |
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4 phases of problem solving |
Problem representation
Planning
Execution
Evaluation |
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Components of executive function are closely interrelated and contributed vitally to academic and social skills in |
Ability to inhibit impulses and focus on a competing a goal
Flexible shifting of attention
Gains in working memory permit children to generate more complex problem solving
Marked gains happen in planning -thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and performing them accordingly to reach a goal |
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Executive function improvements in middle childhood |
Support gains in planning, strategic thinking and self monitoring Enables school age children to handle complex tasks thar require intergration of working memory, inhibition and flexible thinking Influenced by a combination of heredity and environmental factors |
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Inhibition and flexible shifting of attention in middle childhood |
Inhibition improves sharply between ages 6 and 10 Dimensional change card sort is used to assess children ability to switch rules in sorting Flexible shifting benefits from gains in inhibition |
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When do executive function skills improve |
Working memory benefits from increased efficiency of thinking (speed) -often deficient in children with persistent learning difficulties in reading and math Planning on multistep tasks improves -sequential planning and advanced planning -better at planning particularly when adults turn over responsibility and guide and support Executive function skills can be improved with training -both direct training (computer games) and indirect training (exercise and mindfulness training) |
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Sequential and advanced planning ??? |
Young children will succeed at sequential planning but have difficulty with advance planning Not until 9 to 10 did children consistently perform well on advance planning tasks |
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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder |
In middle childhood attention becomes more sustained flexible and selective Deficits in executive processing and inhibition may underlie symptoms of ADHD |
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Symptoms of ADHD |
Inability to stay focused when mental effort is required for more than a few minutes Often ignore social rules and lash out when frustrated |
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Origins and treatment of ADHD |
Highly heritable but also related to environmental factors such as a stressful home life Best treatment approach is medication combined with interventions that model and reinforce appropriate behavior |
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Memory strategies |
Rehearsal -repeating items to oneself Organization -grouping related items together Elaboration -creating a relationship between pieces of information from different categories |
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Memory strategies development in middle childhood |
Memory stratagies improve -children's gains in processing speed, working memory and familiarity with strategies makes strategies become increasingly automatic and effective More stratified children apply simultaneously the better they remember Organization and elaborate combine items into meaningful chucks, further expanding working memory Rehearsal is the first to emerge followed by organization and elaboration |
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Development of knowledge and memory |
Children's general knowledge base or Semantic memory grows larger and more elaborate Highly knowledgeable children organize information in their area of expertise with little to no effort Extensive knowledge and the use of memory strategies support eachother Development of the long term knowledge base facilities strategic memory processing as does children's motivation to use what they know |
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Culture and memory strategies |
People in village cultures see no practical reason to use memory strategies Strategy use is motivated by tasks that require isolated recall as in classrooms Children in developed nations do not use other memory cues such as spactial location or object arrangement |
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School and memory strategies |
The need for memory strategies is associated with societal modernization and formal schooling Societal modernization predicts -the extent of schooling -children scores on cogntvie measures including memory |
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Process of cogntvie self regulation involves |
Continuously monitoring progress toward a goal
Checking outcomes
Redirecting unsuccessful efforts
-develops gradually and predicts academic success -acquiring effective self regulatory skills promotes a sense of academic self efficacy |
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How can parents and teachers foster self regulation |
Pointing out important features of a task
Suggesting strategies and explaining their effectiveness
Providing them with opportunities to tach academic content to others is also effective |
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Self concept in middle childhood |
Shift from here and now Identify emotions and combinations of attributes in their self self descriptions -more accurate but focus on postive By the end of middle childhood they described themselves based on capabilities and general dispositions rather than behaviors |
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Cogntvie development influences the structure of the self |
Changing content of self concept is a product of both cogntive capacities and feedback from others
Perspective taking skills improve
School age children frequently engage in social comparisons
Family and community support is very important -secure attachment lead to coherent self concepts -elaborate reminiscing of internal stares helps self understanding |
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School age children self concepts include |
Increasingly include..... personality traits competencies social comparisons -judgments of their appearance -abilities, -Behaviour in relation to those of others |
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Social comparisons |
Where children ages 4-6 compare their own performance against a single peer, older children can compare multiple individuals at once Can compare to an ideal self |
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Culture and self concept |
Varies from culture to culture Asian parents stress harmonious interdependence Western parents emphasize independence and self assertion |
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Self esteem |
As children enter school self esteem differentiates and adjusts to a more realistic level and becomes hierarchically organized (Preschoolers have high self esteem to help with mastery of new skills) At this age children become increasingly compared to their peers and judged in terms of achievement |
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Children form at least 4 separate self esteem |
Academic competence Social competence Physical/ athletic competence Physical appearance -is related to global self esteem during middle childhood and adolescence -culture plays a role as academic competence tends to be more related to global self esteem in Mexican American children |
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Children with high self esteem |
Tend to be well adjusted, sociable, and conscientious |
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What is low self esteem linked to |
Anxiety Depression Antisocial behavior |
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Self esteem can be influenced by what |
Culture Gender -gender stereotypes contributes to sex difference in physical, academic and social self esteem Ethnicity Media exposure |
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Media exposure and self esteem |
TV viewing predicts higher self esteem amoung European American boys TV viewing predicts lower self esteem in African American children and European American girls |
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What type of attachment and parenting style is associated with higher self esteem |
Secure attachment and authoritative child rearing
-warm postive parenting let's children know that thrt are accepted as competent and worthwhile
-firm but appropriate expectations with explanations help them evaluate their own behavior against reasonable standards
-securely attached children are also more likely to have learned protective self compassion |
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Self compassion |
A caring non-judgmental attitude towards themselves during times when they struggle or fail
Is protective in terms of mental health
Modeling -if compassion is modeled by parents you are more likely to be able to internalize it and be compassionate to others and yourself |
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Controlling parents (authoritatian) And self esteem |
Controlling parents communicate a sense of inadequacy to children
Children subjected to disapproving and insulting parents need constant reassurance and may rely on peers to affirm their self worth |
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Indulgent parents (permissive) And self esteem |
Indulgent parents may create narcissitc children
Is associated with unrealistically high self esteem which also undermines development
Children combine inflated sense of superiority with obsessive worry about what others think of them
Are vulnerable to temporary sharp drops in self esteem when self image is challenged
Inflated praise lowers self esteem
Children should be encouraged to strive for realistic and worthwhile goals |
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Western nations and self esteem inflation |
Western nations become increasingly concerned with boosting their childrens self esteem
They tend to shower their children with praise however children do not benefit from this
Children may conclude that they are expected to perform fantastically all the time and when they fail to meet this impossibly high standards they question their self worth
Tends to decline self esteem over time, which makes caregivers praise more which leads to lower levels of self esteem |
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Mastery oriented attributes/ mind set with self esteem |
Children credit their success to ability that can be improved with effort and effective strategies
They have a growth mindset about ability -it can increase through effort and effective strategies
They attribute failure to factors that can be changed and controlled
Whether these children succeed or fail they take an industrious, persistent approach to learning |
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Learned helplessness attributes/ mindset and self esteem |
Children attributes failures to ability and credit external factors (luck) for success
Hold a fixed mindset about ability -failure due to low ability which cannot be modified -ability is set in stone and can't be improved by trying hard
When a task is difficult these children feel three by the possibility of failure, expereicne an anxious loss of control and give up without really trying |
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Attributes affect on goals |
Mastery oriented children focus on learning goals -seeking information on how best to increase their ability through effort -their performance improves over time
Learned helpless children focus on performance goals -obtaining postive and avoiding negative evaluations of their fragile sense of ability -fail to connect effort to succes -do not develop the metacognitive and self regulatory skills needed for high achievement -ability fails to predict how well they do |
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What are the 2 kinds of praise that parents can offer when children successed |
Person praise -emphasizes the children's traits -teaches children that ability is fixed and leads to retreat from challenges
Process praise -emphasizes behavior and effort -teaches thar competence develops through hard work and effective strategies |
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Praise types use and effect |
Children (low self esteem) respond unfavorably to person praise and end up feeling more shame after failure
Parents who see failure as enhancing see it as benefiting children's learning and focus on helping the children understand how they can use failure to improve. (Process praise) |
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Parents and teachers affect on self esteem |
Thier Messages affect attributes (mastery or helplness) in many ways
-negative stereotypes based on gender and SES can be reinforced
-cultural values influence adults messages and children mindsets |
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Attribution retraining |
An intervention that encourages learned helpless children to belive they can overcome failure by extending more effort and using more effective strategies
-need to experience challenging enough activities that they experience some failure in order to then work on shifting their attributes |
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Cultural difference in success or failure mindset and parents messages |
US mothers offer more praise after success
Chinese mother often pointed out the children's inadequate performance
Regardless of success or failure Chinese mothers were more likely then US mothers to make task relevant statements aimed at ensuring that children exerted sufficient effort
Chinese children showed greater gains in performance after mothers left the room |
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Self conscious emotions in middle childhood |
Self conscious emotions of pride and guild become clearly governed by personal responsibility during middle childhood
Children expereine self conscious emotions even when no adult is present |
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Wjat are self conscious emotions and wjat do they do |
Pride motivates children to take on further challenges
Guilt prompts them to make amends and strive for self improvement
Shame contributes to adjustment problems -Intense shame is destructive -declines in motivation and performance along with withdrawal and depression or intense anger (secondary emotion) |
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Emotional understanding in middle childhood |
Become more likely to explain emotion by referring to internal states than external events
More aware of circumstances likely to spark mixed emotions (understand)
Appreciative of mixed emotions and contradictory facial and situational cues in other -theory of mind (own internal expereicnes that lead to emotion)
Rise in empathy from gains in cogntvie development and social experiences -more sensitive to immediate distress and general life condition if others |
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Two strategies of emotional self regulation that children at 10 cane shift adaptively between |
Problem centered coping
Emotion centered coping |
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Problem centered coping |
They appraise the situation as changeable, identifying the difficulty and decide what to do about it |
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Emotion centered coping |
If problem solving doesn't work
Thry can engage in emotion centered coping
Thus is internal, private and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome |
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What does problem centered coping and emotion centered coping lead to |
When emotional self regulation develops well school aged children aquire emotional self efficacy, are optimistic, empathic and prosocial |
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Emotional self efficacy |
A feeling of being in control of their emotional experience
This fosters a favorable self image and an optimistic outlook which further helps children face emotional challenges |
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Piagets theory of moral development |
4 stages
Used moral dilemmas to assess children's thoughts on morality
Moral reasoning develops as the congtive structures of the child develop |
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Stage 1 pre moral stage (toddler early preschool) |
Children have no true conception of morality
They play imaginative games that don't have any formal rules and don't follow each other's rules
Not yet able to carry out complex mental operations |
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Stage 2 fule following emerges (lasted preschool early school years) |
Children understand and use rules but not flexible in rule use
Moral realism
Children evaluate moral situations on the basis of the amount of damage (consider the objective and physical aspects of a situation)
Immanent justice: punishment must follow a rule violation |
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Moral realism |
Characterized by objective responsibility and Immanent justice |
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Stage 3 later middle childhood (8-10) |
Children realize that rules are conventions and can be altered
Children in this stage now consider intention in their evaluations of morality (stage of moral relativism)
Rules are flexible social agreements and that the intention behind the act is important as the outcome in evaluating the act (Rules become situational)
Rules created by people to help and protect
Following Rules is a personal choice to cooperate with others
Begin to modify Rules in games |
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Stage 4 adolescent and adults |
Children develop rules as needed and extend moral reasoning beyond their personal level
Social and political concerns are considered at the formal operational level in yhe process of moral reasoning
Improvements in cognitve abilities and perspective taking and environment factors such as social expectations contribute to moral reasoning |
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Moral and social coventional understanding in middle childhood |
Children develop a flexible application of moral rules -actions and their immediate impact -also actors intentions and the context or aim
Perspective taking becomes Recursive -recognize different reasons for deception -clarify and linking moral imperatives and social conventions -distinguish between the effort of errors of knowledge and immoral beliefs |
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Recursive thought |
The ability to view a situation from at least 2 perspectives |
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Understanding individual rights |
Children challenge adult authoritiy within the personal domain
Notions of personal choice enhance children's moral understanding -develop sense of right and wrong which guide moral reasoning
Older school age children -place limits on individual choice -favor kindness and fairness when faced with conflicting concerns
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Cultural and moral understanding |
Children in diverse cultures use similar crittera to reason about fairness, moral social conventional and personal concerns
Children all over the world realize that higher principles, independent of rule and authority, must prevail when people's personal rights and welfare are at stake
Higher principles (who has the right to decide for someone else and when) |
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Friendship development |
Friendship becomes more complex and psychologically based
Trust is a defining feature
Friendships are more selective
High quality Friendships are fairly stable
Pick friends who remember themselves in age, gender, race, SES, personality, popularity, procial behavior
Girls form closer more exclusive friendships than boys |
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Impact of Friendships |
Impact on children's development depends on the nature of their friends -kindness and compassion -aggression and hostile interaction
Peer interactions become more prosocial and physical aggression declines |
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Peer acceptance |
Refers to the liability or the extent to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner
peer acceptance is a powerful predictor of psychosocial adjustment
Is a one sided perspective
Better accepted children tend to be more socially competent and have more friendships |
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Self reports of peer acceptance and social preferences yield 5 general categories |
Popular children -are well liked (get postive votes)
Rejected children -are disliked (get negative votes)
Controversial children -are liked and disliked (recive many votes both postive and negative)
Neglected children -seldom mentioned either positively or negatively
Average children -average number of postive and negative votes -account for 1/3 of children in a classroom |
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Peer acceptance and perceived popularity |
Popular prosocial children -socially accepted, admired
Popular antisocial children -relational aggressive boys and girls who also engage in prosocial acts
Rejected aggressive children -high rates of conflict, aggression and impulsive behavior
Rejected withdrawn children -passive and socially awkward
(Rejected children have less access to social experiences and less success when they do engage with peers, leading them to have fewer social skills and cycle continues) |
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Effects of being controversial, neglected or rejected children |
Controversial children engage in postive and negative social behaviors but have qualities that protect them from exclusion
Neglected children are typically well adjusted simply not gregarious or outgoing
Rejected children need intervention and then help from adults to make gains in social skills and overcome their negative reputation
coaching in social skills and academic tutoring and training in perspective taking and social problem solving can help Rejected children gain competence and peer acceptance
Improve parent child interaction for lasting change |
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Peer groups |
By the end of middle childhood children strongly desire group beloning and organize into peer groups
Collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leads and followers -based on proximity and similarity -adopt simular dress and behavior |
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Peer culture |
Typically involves a specialized vocabulary, dress code, and place to hang out
Involves exclusion of peers who deviate
May be characterized by relational aggression |
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Peer victimization |
A destructive form of interaction in which certian children become targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse
Victimization is linked to impared production of cortisol, suggesting a chronically disrupted physiological response to stress
Victims and bullies both need interventions |
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How is family interaction sustained |
Children's overall well being depends on the quality of family interaction which is sustained by -supportive ties to kin -the community -favorable public policies |
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Coregulation |
A form of supervision in which they exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment by moment decision making Parents guide and mentor from a distance and communicate expectations where children must inform parents of their whereabouts and problems so parents can intervene when necessary Despite declines in time spent with parents coregulation allows parents to exercise general oversight of children who increasingly make their own decisions Grows out of warm, securely attached parent child relationships based on cooperation, compromise and mutual respect |
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Sibling relationships in middle childhood (siblings continue to be a source of mutual support) |
Sibling rivalry increases -father spends less time so jealousy over attention predicts sibling conflict Siblings still rely on each other for companionship, assistance, emotional support and resilience in thr face of major stressors Getting along well contributes to more favorable achievement and peer relations -child conduct problems predict a worsening of siblings relationship quality over time |
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How are only child children simular and different from multichild families (sibling relationships are not essential) |
Similar -self rated personality traits -number of high quality friends Different (higher) -self esteem -achievement motivation -levels of education Only children are relatively less well accepted in peer groups than children with siblings |
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Lesbian and gay families |
Children of same sex and opposite sex parents develop similarly -do not differ in adjustment, sometimes better adjusted Discriminatory contexts are all that distinguish the of lesbian and gay parents from children of heterosexual parents -concern is that children will be stigmatized by their parents sexual orientation |
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Never married parent families (single mothers) |
Single parenthood increases financial hardship Many children with single mothers display adjustment problems associated with economic disadvantage Children who lack a father's involvement show less favorable congvtive development and engage more in antisocial behavior Children who feel close with an nonresident father far better than those in two parent homes where a close father tie is lacking |
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Immediate consequences of divorce |
Instability, conflict and a drop in income Parental stress Disorganized family life Affected by children's age, temperament and sex |
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Long term consequences of divorce |
Improved adjustment after 2 years Relationship difficulties may persist (intergenerational transmission of divorce) More problems amoung boys and among children with difficult temperaments -affected by extent of the father's involvement Parenting mediators include -level of conflict and level of children's involvement in parental conflict |
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Divorce is linked to |
Early sexual activity Adolescent parenthood Long term relationship difficulties (Orverriding factor in prostive adjustment following divorce is effective coparenting, parental conflict resolution and both parent involvement) |
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Blended families |
When a parent, step parent and children form a new form structure Parenting education and couples counseling can help parents and children adapt Rate of divorce is higher for second marriages More marital transitions children experience, the greater their adjustment difficulties |
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Mother step father family (most common) |
Boys tend to adjust more rapidly than girls who have more difficulty with a custodial mothers remarriage Older children and adolescents show more problems |
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Father step mother families |
Remarriage of a noncustodial father often reduces his contact with biological children Negative reactions to a custodial fathers Remarriage are common Postvie interactions between girls and stepmother gradually increase Tend to have more adjustment problems |
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When mothers enjoy work and Ramin committed to parenting maternal environment has significant benefits |
Higher self esteem Postive family and peer relations
Fewer gender stereotypes Better grades More involvement from the father -father's willingness to take part in child rearing responsibilities is associated with diverse prostive child outcomes |
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When mother employment is stressful |
Less time for children Increased risk if ineffective parenting |
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Self care children |
Regularly look after themselves for some peiord of time during after school hours
Increases with age and with SES Before 8 to 9 children need supervision
After-school programs can aid school performance and social adjustment in low SES children specifically |
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Effects of self care childhood |
Younger school age children who spend more hours alone have more adjustable difficulties If children are old enough to look after themselves parental phone calls and regular chores contribute to healthy adjustment Authoritative child rearing, parental monitoring and regular chores lead to slef care children who are responsible and well adjusted |
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Fear |
School age children's fears include personal harm, media events, academic failure, parents health, peer rejection, injuries and death
Fears of dark, thunder and lightning and supernatural beings persist Some children develop school refusal -age 5-7 fear of maternal seperatation Some children develop school refusal -age 11-13 fear of particular aspects of school Harsh living conditions contribute to anxieties |
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Phobias |
Phobias are intense, unmanageable fears Even well adjusted children can develop phobias but children with inhibited temperaments are at higher risk |
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Violence on children |
When trauma is temporary most children do not show long term difficulties Chronic trauma/ danger can impair physiological functioning Parental affection and reassurance are the best protection against lasting problems International organizations aid children in war-torn regions |
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Child sexual abuse |
Victims are more often female and most cases are reported in middle childhood -associated with poverty and marital instability Abusers are usually male, often a parent or someone known by a parent -have characteristics that predispose them to sexual exploitation of children Education is key to prevention |
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Consequences of sexual abuse |
Normally severe, persisting adjustment problems Anxiety, depression, low self esteem, anger, hostility, sleep difficulties, loss of appetite, suicidal reactions, substance abuse and delinquency Specialized trauma focused therapy is needed |
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Fostering resilience in children |
Personal traits -easy going temperament, intelligence, self esteem, goof emotional self regulation Family characteristics -trusting relationships with parent, authoritative child rearing, supportive siblings School characteristics -helpful and stimulating teachers Community resources -high quality after school programs, stability in neighborhood, youth groups that promote prosocial behavior, lessons in tolerance and respect |
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