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171 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Reflexs |
Inborn, automatic responses to a particular form of stimulation -thosw that disappear in first year pave the way for development of more advanced brain functions |
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Rooting reflex |
Baby turns its head towards when you gently brush their cheek -adaptation for feeding (find nipple) -disappears at 3-4 months |
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Swimming reflex |
Helps baby who was dropped in water stay afloat increasing the chances of retrieval by caregiver -disappears at 6 months |
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Babkin or Palmarmental reflex (palmer) |
Baby grasps finger as it runs across palm -babies can support on weight by doing this -adaptation for holding onto mom -disappears around 3-4 months |
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Plantar grasp |
When toes are touched the toes curl -disappears 8- 12 months |
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Moro reflex (startle reflex) |
Infant extend the arms out and back to the body when loud sound or unexpected event -grab for support -disappears about 5-6 months |
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Sucking reflex |
Touchs top of the mouth the infant will start to suck -disappears about 4 months |
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Babinski reflex |
Bottom of foot is stroked from heal and up and the big toe bends back and others spread out -disappears near end of first year -replaced by plantar reflex |
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Stepping reflex |
When held up they take steps -disappears when muscles are unable to support babies increasing weight -disappears 2-3 months |
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Tonic neck |
When head is turned the leg and arm on the side of head turn will extend while the leg and arm on the opposite side will flex -disappears by 3-4 months -helps prepare for voluntary reaching |
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Weak reflexes |
Reveal the health of babies nervous system -the presence or absence of reflexes provides info about the babies brain (cerebral cortex) and nervous system |
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Adaptive value of newborn relexs |
-9Survival -Evoking interaction from caregivers -development of complex motor skills |
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2 categories of motor development |
1) postural development -control of body particularly head and trunk -locomotion -gross motor development
2) prehension -ability to grasp and manipulate object with hands -fine motor development |
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Locomotion |
Movement of a person through space -walking or crawling -contributes awareness of space, distance and heights -motor development helps understanding of world |
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Gross motor development |
Control over actions that help infants get around in environment |
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Fine motor development |
Control over smaller movements -reaching and grasping |
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Motor development dropped 2 general principles |
1) proximodistal principle (near to far) -tendency for body parts to develop from the center and outward (arms before head)
2) cephalocaudal principle (head to tail) -body parts near the head are controlled first -birth: head takes up 1/4 and legs 1/3 -2 years: head takes up 1/5 and legs 1/2 |
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Body growth |
5 months -15 pounds (doubled since brith)
First year -height is about 32 inches (50% greater) -22 pounds (tripled) -brain doubles in size)
Send year -height is 36 inches (75% greater) -30 pounds (quadrupled)
(Spurts of growth, half an inch in 24 hours) |
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Weight gain |
Body fat peaks at 9 months which helps with constant body temperature
In 2nd year they slim down
Muscle tissue increases very slowly and doesn't reach peak until adolescence |
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Sex differences |
Girls are slightly shorter and lighter than boys with a higher ratio of fat to muscle |
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Skeletal age |
Measure of bone development -estimate of physical maturity -determined by x rays to see the extent of cartilage hardened in the bone -girls ahead of boys (4-6 weeks) -African American ahead of others |
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Reaching and grasping |
Newborn- 7 weeks -Prereaching (newborns poor coordinated swipes)
3-4 months (purposeful forward arm movements) - Ulnar grasp (clumsy motion where finger close against the palm)
4-5 months (transferring objects from hand to hand)
9 months - Pincers grasp (well correlated grasp using thumb and index finger) |
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Nature vs nurture |
Motor skills develop in a fairly predictable sequence (biological processes)
Environment or experiences seem to have an effect or make a difference -not all babies get to the same place through the same path |
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Dynamic system approach (Esther Thelen) |
All components interact in complex ways and they are always changing according to different factors like context or environment -all parts of the system work together to create action -United by Infants task or goal
Skills develop when Infants are motivated to accomplish a task and has sufficient physical abilities to assemble into the motor behavior |
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Infants go through 2 stages as they assemble new motor behaviors |
1) exploration (try many different responses)
2) selection (fine tune and learn exactly what works) |
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When a task requires a new behavior Infants must create them |
Based on physical abilities they already have + environment (abilities that have been created up to that point)
-leads to different actions |
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Motor skill development depends on the nature of the task including |
Difficulty Motivation Pre existing abilities |
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Touch capacities |
Helps stimulate early physical growth Highly sensitive to pain (boys) |
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Taste and smell capacities |
Infants prrfer sweet tastes and show oder preferences -exposure to a flavour prenatally (amniotic fluid) or in breast milk can lead to long term preferences Smell helps babies and mother identify each other -prefer the smell of their mothers breast milk |
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Hearing capacities |
Can hear a variety of sounds and prefer complex sounds than pure tones at birth Within days can tell difference between sound patterns Sensitive to voices for language development Ability to tell sound location improved over first 6 months |
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Vision capacities (least developed sense) |
Visual acuity (fineness of discrimination) and focus is limited At birth we see unclearly across a range of distances but can detect faces Scan the environment but eye movements and slow and inaccurate Color vison becomes adult like at 4 months |
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Gibsons differentiation theory of perceptual development |
Infants search for invariant (stable) features of the environment in a constantly changing percrptial world Later notice stable relationship amoung features of a stimulus (detecting patterns) Finer and finer invariant features with time as motor development (being about to explore objects) and perceptual development intertwine Enhanced by affordances |
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Affordances |
The action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certain motor capabilities |
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Perceptual narrowing effect |
Perceptual sensitivity that becomes increasingly attuned with age to information most often encountered -faces, musical rhythm and speech sounds
Second half of first year is period to zero in on socially meaningful perceptual distributions |
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Hearing perceptual development |
5 months -become sensitive to syllable stress patterns in native language 7-9 months -divide speech stream into Word units and detect syllable stress patterns Adults style of communicating with infants facilitates analysis of speech structure |
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Vison perceptual development |
2 months -focusing on object as well as adults
4 months Adult like colour vison
Steady increase in visual acuity until 4 -20/80 at 6 months |
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Depth perception (our ability go judge distance of objects) |
Motion cues (3-4 weeks) -rapid eye blink as object comes to face
Binocular cues (8 weeks) -bringing together two images
Pictorial cues (3-4 months) -receding lines, changing texture, overlapping objects
Promoted by motor development |
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Patterns |
Newborns -prefer simple, patterned, black and white stimuli
With age comes preference for complex patterns
2 months -can detect fine grained details 12 months -can detect familiar objects represented by incomplete drawings
Increasing knowledge of object supports pattern perception |
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Face perception |
Newborns -prefer face like patterns -eyed open and upright faces 3 months -make fine distinctions amoung features of different faces 5 months -emtional expressions as meaningful wholes Exposure to simular faces creates group biases (3) -perceptual narrowing with gender and racial info Improves through childhood |
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Size constancy |
Perception of size stays the same dispite changes in retinal image |
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Shape constancy |
Perception of object shape is stable despite changes in shape on retina |
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Object perfection |
5 months -can track objects traveling 1 year -perception of object identity is mastered over first year Experience boosts attention to objects surface features (can tell difference between two) |
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Intermodal perception |
Perception of information input as an intergrated whole -light sound tactile odor taste
Develops over first year -(3-5 months) match voices from lip synch -6 months predict and remember face voice parinjng -7 months arbitrary speech sounds and object motions
Facilitates both perception of the physical world and social language processing |
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Intermodal sensory properties |
Simultaneous imput from more than one modality or sensory system (overlap) |
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Cognition |
All forms of knowing and awareness -everyone tries to make sense of and adapt to the world |
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constructivist approach (piaget) |
Organisms arnt not static (change happens across lifetime and species) Construction of higher forms of structure Development is an active constructive process |
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Piaget and development |
Development is the construction of qualitatively different structures (stages) over the course of time
Cognition is a process of organizing and re organizing (not collection of isolated responses) |
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Schemes |
organizes ways of making sense of experiences (change with age) |
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Two processes that change schemes |
Adaptation -building schemes through dricet interaction with the enviromen -is our mechanism of development
Organization -linking of schemes with others to create a interconnected system) |
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Two processes of adaptation |
Assimilation -using current schemes to interpret the world (what we know)
Accommodation - creating or changing schemes to better capture the environment |
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4 stages of congtive development (piaget) |
1) Sensorimotor (0-2) -understand the world through overt actions -think with sensorimotor equipment
2) Preoperstional (2-6) 3) Concrete operational (6-12) 4) Formal operational (12- adult)
Later stages are where children use mental representations to solve problems |
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Sensorimotor peiord 6 sub stages (order is universal) Textbook |
1) exercising reflexes (birth to 1 month) -Newborn reflexs
2) primary circular reactions (1- 4 months) -simple motor habits centered around body, limited anticipation of events
3) secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) -activity repeat interesting effects in surrounding world, imitation of familiar behaviors
4) coordination secondary circular reactions (8- 12 months) -goal directed behavior, object permanence, improved anticipation of events
5) tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) -acts on objects in novel ways, imitation of unfamiliar behavior, accurate A-B search
6) mental representation (18-24 months) -internal depications of objects, invisible displacement, deferred imitation, make believe play |
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What are circular reactions |
A means of building schemes where infants try to repeat a chance event caused by their own motion ability |
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exercising reflexes (stage 1) |
Infant interacts with the world through reflexs
As he came to his conclusions through what infants did, it makes sense that he was reflexs as the building blocks for future cognitive development
Cogntive development happens as reflexes are applied to more objects and events (assimination) which changes their behavior in response to these new experiences (accommodation) |
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Developing schemes (primary circular reactions) |
Reflexes become sensorimotor schemes -skilled and generalizable action patterns thar infants can act on and make sense of their world -schemes become refined and coordinated |
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Discovering procedure (3rd stage) Secondary circular reactions |
After accidentally providing a result using a scheme
Children actively repeat actions in order to reproduce a result
Behavior becomes more outwardly oriented
Develops procedures for reproducing events |
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Intentional behavior (4th stage) Coordination of secondary reactions |
First intentional behavior emerges
Can separate between a means and end in pursuit of a goal
Use series of schemes to reach goals (goal directed behavior)
Develop of object permanence -still make A not B search error
Improved anticipation of events |
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Object permanence |
Understanding that objects have an existence that is independent of the child's perceptual contact with them -they remain and exist even when out of sight -present in frist few months -mastery is Gradual |
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Egocentricism |
Inability to distinguish selfs own perceptions from outer world
Progressive decentering -infants gradually become able to distinguish between self and world |
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Invariants |
Knowledge of what remains constant in a world of continual change (object permanence) |
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Novelty and exploration (5th stage) Tertiary circular reactions |
Vary behavior so new schemes are added and prodcue new effects -experiment with environment -use objects as tools
Problems solved through trail and error
Improve imitation of unfamiliar behaviors
Accurate A-B search |
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Mental representation (6th stage) |
Can now use mental representations rather than overt actions to solve problems -mental problem solving
Internal depications of objects and events
Can solve invisible displacement -can track an object that is moved while behind or under
Differed imitation -will imitate behaviors at a later time
Make believe play |
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Violation of expectation method (habituation= familiarize) |
Assesses infants knowledge of physical relatity based on their attention to expected vs unexpected events -longer the look the more surprised -3.5 month start to look longer
Object permanence
-some believe it only indicated limited implicit awareness of physical events |
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Was piaget right |
Babies construct mental representations of objects earlier then he expected |
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Deferred vs inferred imitation |
Deferred -representation of a models past behavior -enrich range of schemes
Inferred -infer others intentions and may imitate actions they try to produce -cornerstone of social understanding and communication |
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What does current research say |
Cogntive changes are Gradual and continuous
Various aspects of infant cognition change unevenly
Do not develop in neat, stepwise fashion |
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Sociocultural approach (Vygotsky's)
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Development is an active process that is fundamentally social and cultural -not just internal |
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Cultural- historical context |
Children inherit their environment as much as genes -social and cultural contexts affect cogntive structures -cultural variations affect mental strategies
Cognition is medidated and transformed by tools especially language |
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Scaffolding |
Balancing direct explicit teaching with indirect support, guided participation
People foster infant devel |
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Zone proximal development |
The distance between what a child can do themselves without any assistance and what they can do with assistance |
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Information processing |
Rely on a theory of memory (to learn it must be acquired and retained)
Thinking (cognition) is information processing -ask what are the psychological processes involved in processing information and how do they change with development
Compare to computers -information enters as input from environmental, is processed at each set and ends in a response or output |
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Recognition memory |
Realizing that a perceptual stimulus has be encountered before |
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Recall memory |
The ability to retrieve information in the absence of an immediate environmental stimulus |
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3 parts of cogntive system for processing |
Sensory storage -sights and sounds are represented directly and stored momentarily
Short term memory storage -information is retained briefly so we can activity work on it to reach goals
Long term memory storage -our permanent knowledge base -massive capacity and uses aid retrieval -info is categorized |
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Know |
Short term memory -how much information can be held at once for a few seconds
Working memory (short term memory storage) -number of items held while engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate them |
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Central executive |
Conscious reflective part of our mental system -manages its activities and enables complex, flexible thinking |
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Automatic processes |
Processes that are so well learned that they require no space in working memory |
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Executive function |
Cogntjve operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations |
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Attention |
Infants gradually improve in attentional control and speed of information take in
As the prefrontal cortext improves kids can -increasingly capable of international behavior -attraction to novelty declines -sustained attention improves |
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How can adults foster sustained attention |
Encourage babies current interest Prompting the child to stay focused |
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Infant recognition memory -memory possible from birth |
Sensorimotor infants use familiar schemes when present with familiar objects Infants search for hidden objects Show preference for their mothers voice |
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Operant conditioning research |
Retention increases during infancy and toddlerhood
Memory moves from high conxtet dependent to context free |
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Habituation research |
Infants need to be physically active to aquire and retain new information Motor activity does promote certain aspects of learning and memory |
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Categorization |
Even young infants can categorize to reduce amount of information they encounter 6 months -categorize on the basis of two correlated features By second half of first year -categories based on clusters of features Easiest categories are perceptual |
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Contributing factors to babies categorization abilities |
Exploration of objects and expanding knowledge Adult labeling of set of objects |
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Specialization for cortical regions |
Visual areas become more fine tuned as they receive more input/ experience and these finely tuned neurons provide input to the prefrontal cortext where categorization happens
-with development infants remember more complex info and categorize better because of this |
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What evidence is there for recall memory in infancy -recall memory is supported by hippocampus |
Deferred imitation Search for hidden objects Language requires recall Can imitate sequence of actions |
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The emergence of long term memory may relate to conversations with parents |
Parents stimulate recall, emphasize rehearsal and teach elaboration |
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Infantile amnesia |
Lack of long term memory for the first 2-3 years |
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Explanations of infantile amnesia |
-immaturity of brain parts -qualitative difference between early and later memory systems (verbal vs non verbal) -quantitative changes in basic memory processes or encoding, retention and retrieval -lack of sense of self in infancy |
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Dynamic systems view of early cognition |
Each cogntive attainment is analyzed to see how it results from a complex system of accomplishments and goals |
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Chomsky nativist theory |
Language us etched into the structure of the human brain -brocas area and Wernickes area appear to support comprehension -LAD Infancy is a sensitive peridot for acquiring grammar |
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Language acquisition device (LAD) |
An innate system containing a universal grammar common to all languages |
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Limiatation of chomsky theory |
-can't specify universal grammar -certain observations of language suggest that more experimentation and learning are involved |
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Interactionist perspective of language |
Emphasizes interactions between inner capacities and environmental influences -an active child strives to communicate, which cued caregivers to provide appropriate language experiences In a blend of info processing view with nativist view some theories argue that specific brain structures support higher level language learning |
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First speech sounds |
Cooing (2 months) -vowel like noises Babbling (6 months) -repeated consonant vowel combinations |
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Joint attention |
Child attends to the same object or event as caregiver -caregivers labeling contributes to early language development -interactions begin to include give and take at 2-3 months -end of the frist year they use preverbal gestures to direct adults attention |
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Infant directed speech (IDS) |
Form of communication consisting of short sentences with high pitched, exaggerated expressions, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses, clear gestures and repetition of new words -builds on joint attention, turn taking and preverbal gestures |
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What can help develop language |
Caregiver- child conversations (piture books) promotes language development One on one interaction with an adult increases opportunities for sensitive responsive interaction |
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First words |
Around 1 -builds on sensorimotor foundations and on categories Comprehension develops ahead of production -speed and accuracy of Comprehension increases over second year -is then associated with more rapid language development over the following year |
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2 errors in word usage |
Underextension -apply words to narrowly Overextension -apply words too broadly |
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Two word utterance phase |
2nd year -children improve ability to categorize, recall words and grasp others social cues
As experiences broaden toddlers have wider range of object and events to label Telegraphic speech |
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Telegraphic speech |
Use high content words while omitting smaller less important ones |
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What comes first language or thought |
Piaget -language reflect cognition -cognition precedes language -egocetric speech (preoprrational children to assume that listeners know everything they do so difficulty with perspective taking) -collective monologues (young children use egocentric speech with each other so no communication) Vygotsky -language is a tool that transforms elementary mental functions to higher mental functions -language precedes thought -private speech (towards themselves during problem solving) |
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Social interactions |
Are transactional -reciprocal interactions -influence each other |
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Social development is distinct in the frist 2 years |
Marked by small number of significant others in their social world (western) Develop strong enmtional relationships more easily and intensely in infant years Are predisposed to firm social relations |
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Emotions |
Internal reactions or feelings either postivd or negative |
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Affect |
The outward expression of emotions through facial expressions (hard wired) or gestures
-ability to display and recognize affective states in the foundation for mutual regulation with mother -facial expressions are the best cues for determining infant emotions |
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What is the function of emotion |
Motivate and organize us for action (behavior)
Prepare us for action
Important when we don't have time to think things through
Communicate and influence others
Communicate to ourselves -give us important information about a situation (gut feelings= intuition) -sometimes treated as facts to justify our thoughts and behaviors (wrong) |
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Crying (most important form of infant communication) |
It must vary and listeners must be able to recognize meanings for communication -use different types to communicate different meaning -to learn differences it is based on experience (allows to learn contextual cues)
-as pitch increases its more serious or urgent
-pain cries different in pitch and intensity from hunger cries
-has elements of both nature and nurture |
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What are the basic/ primary emotions |
Happiness Interest Surprise Fear Anger Sadness Disgust
-have long evolutionary history for promoting survival |
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What are the two global arousal states newborns experience |
Attraction to pleasent stimulation Withdraw from unpleasant stimulation -gradually emotions become clear and well organized singles |
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Infants display of primary emotions |
Distress by crying (at birth) Interest by starting (at birth) Pleasure by smiling (6 to 10 weeks) Sadness and anger (3 to 4 months) Fear |
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Happiness |
Social smile is evoked by the parents communication (6- 10 weeks) Laughter reflects faster processing of information (3-4 months) |
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Anger and sadness |
Angry reactions increase with intentional behavior Sadness occurs when deprived of caregiver |
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Fear |
Stranger anxiety -Infants use familiar caregiver as a secure base |
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Socialization of emotions |
The emergence of emotions is guided by biological processes and is universal across cultuer however it is shaped by cultural practices Modeling (babies copy emotions shown by caregivers) |
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Face to face interactions |
During 3 - 4 months most contact is face to face interactions These early experiences are significant for the development of communication between mother and baby Development interactions synchrony -mother learns to concentrate he interactions when the infant when infant is paying attention and inattention -leads to turn taking style of interaction |
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Affect mirroring |
The degree to which caregivers gauge their communicative behaviors to respond to input from infants -recognizing attention and inattention periods |
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Still face paradigm |
Used to examine the effects of disruption of face to face interaction by having the mother present the baby with no expression at all -support the idea of infant mother interaction pattern -disruption of the synchronous interaction leads to distress |
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Responding to emotions |
After 6 weeks -scan faces
2-3 months -babies match the feeling tone of caregiver
4-5 months -discriminate a wider range of emotions
5-6 months -Clear understanding of the meanings of emotional expressions 6 months -imitate expressions of smiling (leads to social referencing)
8-10 months -social referencing |
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Social referencing |
Using info about others emotion expressions to regulate behavior -seek emtional info from trusted adult in uncertain situation Ex. Cliff If mother showed fear very few when over to deep portion of the cliff |
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Self conscious emotions (secondary emotions) |
Higher order feelings involving injury to or enhancement of sense of self
Appear middle of second year -infants become more aware of themselves
Require adult instruction in when to experience the emotion (guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, pride) Vary culture to culture |
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Self evaluative emotions |
Between 2 and 3 Ability to compare themselves to a standard |
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Emotional display rules (expectations regarding expression of affect) |
Show awareness of display rules as they learn to control affective displays -at first expressions mirror emotions -with age comes the ability to used verbal labels for emotions |
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Saarni 4 reasons why children mask emotions |
To avoid negative outcomes To protect self esteem To fit with norms and conventions Out of concern for others feelings and well being |
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Self regulation |
Strategies used to adjust emotional states to a conforable level of intensity to accomplish goals -attention shifting -self soothing -approaching/ retreating -language needs voluntary, effortufl management of emotions Parents contribute to style and provide lessons in socially approved ways of expressing emotions 2nd year -growth in representation and language leads to more ways of regulating |
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Temperament |
Early appearing stable individual differences in reactivity and self regulation -babies emotional epxre and responsiveness to a situation (personality) Reactivity: -quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor activity Self regulation -stratagies that modify Reactivity |
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Thomas and chess (new York Longitudinal study on temperament) |
Attempted to identify early correlates of psychological adjustment Based on -parent reports (criticized) (self serving biases, observational skills, hypothesis guessing) Judged babies on -activity, adaptability and intensity Goodness of it -determines the degree of infl of infant temperament on later development |
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Thomas and chess 3 temperaments |
Easy (40%) -has regular patterns of eating, sleeping and toileting -adapts tk new situations -low intensity reactions
Difficult (10%) -less predictable scheduals -withdrawals from New situations -high intensity reactions
Slow to warm (15%) -adapts poorly to changing situations -no active or intense
35% from study didn't fit |
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Plomin EAS model |
Presumes that infant temperament is strongly biological, with inherented traits that appear early and remain throughout life Included dimensions of (reflective of and influenced by caregivers and environment) 1) emotionality (how quickly becomes aroused and response negatively to environment) 2) activity (tempo and energy use) 3) Sociability (preference to being with others) 4) shyness |
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Plomin EAS model findings |
Emotionality, Activity, and sociability are stable from 18 to 50 months -initial measures are presumed to reflect genetic influences -later measures reflect interactions with the environment Uses EAS temperament survey |
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Rothbarts model |
Temperament reflects individual differences in reactivity and self regulation -6 dimensions based on them -effortful control (dimension that predicts favorable development and adjustment)
Also assumes that babies environment and caregivers play a major part
Interactionist view
Focuses on physiological processes especially stress (cortisol levels) (early as 4 months) |
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Inhibited vs uninhibited children |
Inhibited or shy children -react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli
Uninhibited or sociable children -display posyive emotion and approach novel stimuli |
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Neurobiological correlations of shyness |
Heart rate higher High cortisol concentration in saliva Greater pupil dilation Rise in blood pressure Lower skin surface temperature
Warm supportive parenting reduces shyness |
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Stability in temperament |
Low to moderate in infancy and toddlerhood -long term prediction better after 3 once responding styles are better established -prefrontal cortext that suppressed impulses develops rapidly at 2.5- 3 years Child rearing plays important role Twin studies suggest strong genetic influence Negative aspects of temp appear relatively stable |
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Genetic and environmental influences |
Genentic influences -responsible for half of individual differences in temperament Gene- environment correlations -create different susceptibility to rearing experience -child rearing variations are supported by cultural beliefs -gender differences suggest a genetic foundation |
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Goodness of fit model |
Involved creating child rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while also encouraging more adaptive functioning -helpful for determining got to parent difficult children Cultural valued affect thr fit between parenting and child temperament |
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Temperament and social interactions |
Social interactions are influenced by personality and the degree of match between temperament and environmental expectations (goodness to fit model) |
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Thomas and chess behavior problems |
Infants classified as difficult display more behavior problems later on in childhood by not adulthood Infant difficultly and levels of inhibition predict psychological adjustment |
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Explanations for the stability of difficult temperaments |
Poor child caregiver relationships which lead to later behavior problems Parental attitudes, expectations and approaches may dictate child ratings Difficult temperaments may have ethological advantages (servival) |
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Kagan model of inhibition |
Inhibition refers to the tendency to react to unfamiliar events and people timidity and avoidance Kagan argues the concept of inhibition to classify infants Kagan study -examined how 2 year olds reacted to strange lab setting -inhibited children showed evidence of greater fear (fear of dark) when studied 6 years later Attentive and sensitive maternal care lessened negative emotionally |
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Attachment |
The string affectionate tue we have with special people in out lives that leads us to experience pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness -both affective system and infant temperament are important in attachment process |
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Different views of how attachment is formed |
Psychoanalytic perspective -feeding as the central context for the development of an emotional bond
Psychosocial theory -development of a sense of trust in the caregiver and surrounding world
Behavorism -mother's caresses paired with tension relief as baby's hunger is satisfied |
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Ethological theory of attachment (bowlby) |
Attachment as an evolved response that promotes survival
Internal working model -set of expectations about the availability and responsiveness of attachment figures |
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4 stages of ethological theory |
Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks)
Attachment in the making phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months)
Clear cut phase (6-8 months to 18 - 2 years) -separation anxiety emerges
Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months - 2 years and on) |
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Phase 1 of attachment indiscriminate social responsiveness (birth to 8-12 weeks) |
Infants emit behavior such as crying and smiling to many people to sustain close contact Mother quickly learns to recognize her infant and to bond to that infant Possibly in a sensitive period |
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Phase 2 or attachment Discriminate social responsiveness (2- 7 months) |
Infant focuses attention on the primary caregiver -Selective in directing their social interaction to primary caregiver When unique communication systems develop |
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Phase 3 of attachment Focused attachment (8-24 months) |
Fear emerges as a dominat emotion and is expressed in the absent of mother Wariness of strangers
Separation protest
Full blown attachment is evident when infants use mother as a secure base -altering their physical proximity to her to regulate feelings |
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Attachment phase 4 Goal corrected partnerships (3 years and on) |
Children are able to modulate own reactions and responses Has decreasing need to seek proximity with their attachment figure Understand caregivers are seperate individuals -separation protest decline Engage in reciprocal relationships |
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Different kinds of attachment in strange situation labatory technique |
Secure attachment (60%) -infant uses parent as secure base
Insecure avoidant attachment (15%) -seems unresponsive to the parent and avoidant at reunion
Insecure resistant attachment (10%) -clinginess combined with angry resistive behavior
Disorganized attachment (15%) -contradictory behaviors reflecting the greatest insecurity |
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Attachment Q sort method |
Home observations thar categorize mother child interaction and attachment 90 cards sorted into 9 groups on the continuum from least to most representative of the child Does not differentiate between types of insecurity Better reflects relationships than in labitory |
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Ainsworth procedure suggests 3 patterns in attachment (in video increase each by 5%) |
Securely attached (60%) -distressed when mothers leave, happy when she returns
Inscure avoident (15%) -little distress and avoids moyher when returns
Inscure resistant (10%) -distressed throughout procedure (anger)
Disorganized (15%) -unpredictable distressed response to separation and reunion (withdrawal) -researchers recently identified |
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What factors affect attachment |
Availability to consistent caregiver Quality of caregiver -sensitive caregiver -maternal mind mindedness -proximal care (cultures that emphasize interdependence) Infant characteristics Family circumstances Parents internal working models |
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Attachment in no western culture |
Attachment behaviors have distinct cultural meanings Allomothers -nonmatrrnal caregivers who share responsibility for infant Collective caregiveing leads to low stranger anxiety Infants show caregiving network in addition to parents |
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Why is attachment important |
Secure attached infants grow up to be better problem solvers, curious, higher grades -develop greater cogntive and social competence -less likely to develop emtional and behavior problems Disorganized attachment is linked to behavior problems in childhood Long term effects are conditional (dependent on quality of future close relationships) |
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Attachment to peer Sociability |
Peer sociability emerges during first year in cultures where age mates have regular contact 1 to 2 years -toddlers views one another as playmates Early peer sociability is promoted by caregiver child bond -reciprocal exchanges promote peer engagement and joint understandings |
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Self awareness |
Implicit sense of self- world differentiation -conjuction eith cognitive and social development -lead to first efforts to understand another's intentions, feelings and desires
2 years -self recognition is well underway
Toddlers -construct explicit body self awareness but make scale errors |
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What causes gains in self awareness |
Acting on the enviroment Receiving sensitive caregiving |
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Self knowledge (perception) |
Self knowledge is evident in perception
Infants -can imitate facial experentions
Can connect sensory input with motor response which layd ground work for realization that they can interact and affect the world around them
3 month old -perceive their own motor control -recognize video images of their own movements
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Self awareness and culture |
Cultural variations in self development reflect autonomous vs relational child rearing goals |
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Empathy |
Ability to understand another's emtional state and feel with that person First seen in older toddlers who have experienced sensitive caregiving and emotionally avaliable parents Also show awareness of how to upset others |
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Personal agency |
Understanding that thry can have impact in ther world -cause events Early indicator or this is unfant actions on things in their environment -also caregivera (more sensitive and resojnsove the parents the more quickly infants learn their own influence on environment) -interactional synchrony |
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Visual self recognition (what they look like) |
As babies approach 2 they display increasing awareness of self -visual self awareness at 24 months (15-18 but unreliable) During first year babies will smile and vocalize at mirror reflections 3 months -cab discriminate still images of self and others (prefer others) 5 months -when still images are altered looking preference changes (look at themselves) |
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Mirror self recognition/ mark test (Gallup) |
Colour mark is placed on thr infants face in a location where she can't normally see it and is placed in front of a mirror If they touch the mark she understands that the marked face in mirror is her own -recognition of self in photo comes several months after |
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Visual self recognition and when it occurs |
Correlation between difficult temperament and earlier recognition Secure attachment is correlated with self recognition -sense of personal agency -awareness of personal physical characteristics Maltreated or abused children are leads securely attached and show later self recognition |
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Categorical self |
Classifying self and others on the basis of -age -sex -physical characteristics -goodness vs badness Toddlers use the limited categorial understanding to organize their own behavior Gender typing increases in early childhood |
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Self control |
Learn to -avoid dangerous objects -wait for gratification -change non effective strategies
Control develops gradually allowing them to act purposefully and produce outcomes |
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Compliance (earliest indicator of self control) |
Is going along with requests or adopting standards of behavior
Develops between 12 and 18 months
Committed compliance -embraces thr caregivers agenda and internalizes their instruction
Situational compliance -when child cooperates buy does not involve any behavioral change (temporary) Assertiveness and opposition occur along eager willing compliance |
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Don't vs do compliance |
Don't compliance increases between 1-4 - by 4 80% of the time
Do compliance are more difficult to achieve
Differences may come from temperament and parent child relations -greater compliance if mothers are responsive to needs |
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Delay of gratification |
Waiting for the appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act Influenced by temperament and quality of caregiving |
