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182 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is early childhood called |
The play years -time where play becomes complex, flexible and symbolic Years 2-6 |
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Overall brain change |
Brain increases to 90% its adult weight Undergoes reshaping and refining |
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Cerebral cortex |
Areas have over produced synapses which create a high energy metabolism (4 to 5)
-lots of synapses supports plasticity
-synaptic pruning takes place
-shift towards a more lateralized brain Prefrontal cortical areas devoted to executive functions (inhibition, working memory, flexibility in thinking, planning, and attention) see rapid growth |
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Synaptic pruning |
Neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their connective fibers and number of synapses gradually decline
-brain plasticity declines |
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Left and right cerebral hemisphere |
Left hemisphere is especially active as language skills increase and support control over children's behavior
Right hemisphere which is responsible for spatial skills develop more gradually over childhood and adolescence |
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Cerebellum |
Structure that aids in balance and control of body movment
Contributes to dramatic gains in motor coordination |
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Reticular formation |
Structure in brain stem that maintains alterness and consciousness
Sends out fibers to prefrontal cortex to aid in sustained, controlled attention |
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Hippocampus |
Inner brain structure that plays a vital role in memory and spatial understanding
Rapid synapse formation and myelination results in dramatic gains in memory and use of strategies to store and retrieve info, autobiographical memory development, spatial understanding anddrawing and reading maps |
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Amygdala |
Inner brain structure that processes novelty and emotional information
Capacity for emotional learning emerges from amygdala enhancing memory for emotionally salient events -connections between amygdala and prefrontal cortex form and myelinate -damage = loss of ability to learn fear, safety signals and behavior problems |
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Corpus callosum |
Large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
Rapid growth in infancy and early childhood, slower pace through middle childhood and adolescence
Supports smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the body and intergration of aspects of thinking (perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving)
The harder the task the more need for connection |
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On average how much weight and height is gained each year |
2 to 3 inches 5 pounds in weight -girls retain more body fat then boys who are slightly more muscular |
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Changes to the body between 2 to 6 |
Baby fat decline -by 5 top heavy toddler is now flat tummied, longer legged, streamlined (more like adult) Posture and balance improve (gains in motor coordination) 45 new epiphyses (cartilage hardens to bone) -estimate skeletal age and physical maturity Loss of baby teeth |
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Loss of baby teeth (primary teeth) |
When they loose teeth is influenced by genetic factors (end of preschool) Nutrition also influences dental development -malnutrition delays teeth -obesity accelerates it |
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Decay in baby teeth |
Affects permeant teeth Exposure to tobacco smoke suppresses immune system so children can't fight off bacteria responsible for decay |
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Dynamic systems theory of motor development |
Build of simpler movements in toddleehood Revise each new skill as their bodies grow larger and stronger, central nervous system develops, environment presents new challenges and set new goals Skills also aided by gains in perceptual and cogntive capacities |
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E kinds of movement kills that emerge between 2-6 |
Locomotor: running, jumping Manipulative: throwing, catching, kicking Stability: bending, turning, swinging |
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What causes refinement of skills |
Development of muscle and nerve pathways Acquiring sensory and perceptual skills Opportunities for physical and social interaction |
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Reaction time |
Improves substantially from infancy through elementary years Improvements due to maturation of the prefrontal cortex |
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Gross motor development (large muscle movements) |
Center of gravity shifts downward which improves balance -gaits become smooth and Children can preform now motor skills with lower body (running, jumping, hopping) -arms are free to experiment (throwing, steering, catching) Upper and lower body skills combine (petal and steer bike, whole body moves to throw) Skills preformed with greater speed and endurance over early childhood |
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Fine motor skills development (giant leap forward in preschool years) |
See giant changes in self help skills and drawing
Self help (must be patient as rushing declines skills) -(4-5) can dress without supervision -4 can adept with a fork -5 can cut soft food with knife -shoe tying (most complex)
Drawing -scribbles being in 2nd year -first representational forms around 3 -more realistic drawings at 5-6 -skills vary across cultures |
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Factors that combine with fine motor control to develop artful representations |
Realization that pictures can serve as symbols
Improved planning and spatial understanding
Emphasis that the child's culture places on artistic expression |
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Writing |
No distinction between writing and drawing till 4 Writing begins to look like printing at 4 -includes picture like devices (circle for sun)
4-6 learn alphabet letters and link them with language sounds -minor image letters (b and d) are hard till ability to read
Both gains in fine motor development and perception contribution to writing ability |
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drawing development |
1 year (uncontrolled scribbling) -random marks, lines and scribble 2 years (controlled scribbling) -rough circles, horizontal and vertical lines, loops and spirals, t and v shapes 3-4 years (shapes) -circles, squares, rectangles then triangles, dots and crosses, T H V shapes then name, person (tadpole, head and legs) -experimenting with pencil grip 6-7 (own style) -no depth cues yet -adult pencil grip around 5 |
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Individual difference in motor skills |
Taller more muscular bodies move more quickly and aquire skills earlier Social pressures channel children into activities |
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Gender differences in motor skills |
Boys -ahead in skills requiring power and force Girls -advantaged in fine motor skills and skills requiring balance and foot movment Sex difference increase with age but remain small throughout childhood Social pressures for boys to be active and girls to play quietly at fine motor activities exaggerate small genetically based sex difference |
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Enchancing early childhood motor development |
Motor skills are mastered through everyday play -formal lessons have little impact -60 mins in adult structured play and several hours in child directed play -need appropriate play spaces and equipment (meet diverse needs) Daily routines support fine motor skill development (pouring, dressing) Social climate created by adults can enhance and dampen motor development -adult involvement in children's motor activities should focus on fun rather than winning or perfecting technique |
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Influences on physical growth and health |
Poverty Heredity Sleep habits Nutrition Infectious diseases Childhood injuries |
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Poverty (intervention and support can combat impacts) |
8 to 10% lower volume of great matter Persistent poverty can compromise brain structures crucial for learning -apparently as early as infancy Poor health, impaired congtion, emotional and behavioral problems Environmental adversities (chronic high stress, inadequate attention, involvement and stimulation from parents) affect brain development |
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Heredity |
Genes influence growth through hormone production
Pituitary glad (releases two growth hormones)
1) growth hormones (GH) -needed for all body tissue development -causes relase of IGF-1 -deficiency= small size
2) thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) -release thyroxine which is needed for Braun development and GH to have fill impact -must recive injections at birth |
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Sleep habits |
Growth hormones released during sleep Sleep difficulties associated with impaired cogntive performance (attention, thinking, memory, intelligence, behavior problems) Sleep habits impacted by environmental stressors -addressing family stress and conflict is key for improving Sleep Bedtime routines linked to reduced waking and long Sleep time |
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Nutrition |
Appetites decline because growth slows down in pre-schoolers Being a picky eater is adaptive Imitate food choices of those around them -fats, oils, salts and sugars kept to minimal Emotional climate at meal time effect eating habits -bribing leads to wanting and focusing on reward more Deficient diet is associated with shorter stature, attention, memory, poorer intelligence, hyperactivity and aggression |
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Infectious diseases |
Disease and malnutrition create vicious spiral -poor diet depresses immune system -illness reduces appetite Decreased my immunization -measles linked to autism is false Illness rises with child care attendance -otitis media (middle ear infection, build up of fluid) -effects language, processing speech and academic performance |
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Childhood injuries |
Unintentional injury is leading cause of childhood mortality in industrialized nations
Suffocation (1 in infacts), downing (1 in toddlers) traffic accidents (2nd in both infants and toddlers)
Boys at higher risk from greater impulsively
Poverty, single parenthood and parent education increase chances
Parents have done little change in how much they protect their children -overestimate children abilities -feel violates freedom |
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Preoperstional stage (2-6 or 7 years) (preschool age) (piaget) |
Cogntive abilities are defined by representational abilities ans their symbolic function/ representation (use one thing as a symbol to stand in for or represent somthing else)
Experiences with diverse symbols strengthen understanding that one object can stand for another |
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Behaviours that demonstrate symbolic representation |
Language (most flexible means of mental representation)
Make belive play
Drawing
Deferred/ inferred imitation -deferred imitation is ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present |
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Language |
Thinking in words allows dealing with the past, present and future at once and combining concepts in unique ways
Piaget underestimated the power if language to spur children's cognition -believed sensorimotor activity leads to internal images which children label with works |
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Make believe play |
Acting out everyday and imaginary activities
-piaget believed that through pretending young children practice and strengthen new representational schemes |
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Mental representations |
Internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate -images (mental pictures of objects, people, spaces) -concepts (categories in which similar objects or events are grouped together) |
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dual representation |
Viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol -Symbols correspond to something specific in everyday life
-aided by pointing out similarities between models and real world spaces
-opportunities to make drawing and label them and watching others do the same, help children grasp that line drawings can represent real world objects |
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3 important changes that reflect preschools growing symbolic mastery |
Play detaches from the real life conditions accosicated with it -early pretend acts imitate adults and are not flexible -flexibly understand that an object can have different functional identities from one pretend game to the next (3)
Play becomes less self centered -become detached participants (3) -agents and recipients of pretend Play can be independent of themselves (doll pushes button)
Play includes more complex combinations of schemes -drink from cup but doesn't combine drinking with pouring -sociodramatic Play -end of preschool children have complex understanding of role relationships and story lines |
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Sociodramatic Play |
Make believe play with others where children combine schemes with those of peers -under way by second year and increases in complexity |
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Strengths of Preoperational thought |
Representational though (in head problem solving) is more rapid, efficient and adaptive than sensorimotor solving -superior
Moves children from a "here and now" orientation to one which includes past, prednt and future
Use of language allows for the communication of thought (thought social)
Development of qualitative identity -realizing that the nature of somthing is not changed by a change in appearance |
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Limitations of preoperational thought |
Children are not capable of operations (mental representations of actions that obey logical rules) -thinking is rigid, limited to on aspect of situation and influence by how things appear at the moment
Egocentrism
Conservation
Hierarchical classification |
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Egocentrism |
Failure to distinguish others symbolic viewpoints from one's own -everyone sees the world from their stance -limited ability to represent the experience or perspective of others
Responsible for animistic thinking (attributing life qualities to an inanimate object)
Bias Prevents accommodating or reflecting on and revising their faulty reasoning |
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Three mountains problem (shows Egocentrism) |
Children walk around display of 3 mountains and then seated on one side
Researcher moves a doll to various locations and child has to indicate what the doll would see
Many say the doll would see exactly what they see |
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Egocentric speech (shows egocentrism) |
-young children speaks assuming that the listener already knows everything they know -don't take into consideration of the perspective of the listener |
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Follow up research on egocentric thinking |
On simplified tasks with familiar objects, 3 year Olds show clear awareness of others vantage points (intentions and perspectives)
Perspective taking develops gradually throughout childhood and adolescence |
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Follow up research on animistic and magical thinking |
By 2.5 years children give psychological explanations for people and animals but rarely for objects -seldom attribute biological properties to objects
Preschoolers notions of magic are flexible and appropriate
Magical beliefs decline with age |
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Conservation |
Idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same even when their outward appearance changes -quantity is conserved
Children in preoperational stage center their attention on a single aspect making conservation tasks difficult -tasks depend on knowing that the quantitative properties of an object are not changed by appearance
Focusing in single dimension leads kids to confound a change in appearance with a change in reality |
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Two deficiencies in preoperational thought related to conservation |
Centration -focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting other important features
Irreversibility -inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction to return to the starting point |
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Influence of active transformation of materials in conservation tasks |
6 year Olds who activity transformed the materials in conservation tasks performed much better than children who observe adults demonstrating the transformation for them |
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Hierarchical classification |
Organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and difference
-centration and irreversability are seen in preoperational children's lack of hierarchical classification
-demonstated by Piagets class inclusion problem |
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Piagets class inclusion problem |
Shown 16 flower (4 blue and 12 red)
When asked "are there more red flowers or flowers" the preoperarional children will respond more red
Fail to realize that both red and blue flowers are in the category of flowers |
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Follow up research on logical thought |
On simplified, relevant tasks, preschoolers display logical thinking
Young children also engage in impressive reasoning by analogy about physical changes |
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Follow up research on categorization |
Preschoolers flexibly organize knowledge into categories using both nonobvious and perceptual information
By 3 they easily move between basic level categories and general categories and break down general categories into subcategories
Influenced by others and past experiences |
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Piagets view of action (gestures) |
Beloved action plays a role in cogntive development but overlooked the importance of gestures children make when explaining their solutions to problems
Speech-gesture mismatches show cogntive transition (state of disequilibrium) -shows they are considering two contradictory strategies which is a sign of readiness to learn
Can also help work through ideas |
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Evaluation of preoperational stage |
Piaget was partly wrong and partly right about children's cogntvie abilities
Evidence of Gradual development of logical operations challenges his assumption of an abrupt change toward logical reasoning around 6 or 7
Over time children rely on increasingly effective mental approaches to solving problems
Neo-piagetian theorists combine piagets stage approach with information processing emphasis on task specific change |
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What are the 3 principles from Piaget thar continue to influence teacher training and classroom practices |
Discovery learning -teachers provide rich variety of activities designed to promote exploration and discovery (rather than verbally)
Sensitivity to children's readiness to learn -don't impose new skills before children indicate they are interested and ready
Acceptance of individual differences -plan activities for individuals and small groups -compare progress to previous development (not standard) |
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Vygotsky |
Children inherit their environments as much as genes
Development occurs first in social or communicative content
Zone of proximal development
Cognition is mediated and transformed by tools especially language |
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To promote cogntvie development, social interaction must have two features
-learning takes place in zone of proximal development( learn through scaffolding) |
Intersubjectivity -two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding
Scaffolding -adjusting the support offered during teaching lessons to fit the child's current level of performance |
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Effective scaffolding |
Effective scaffolding creates children who are more advanced in executive function and intellectual performance and that use more private speech
Improved scaffolding explains why home based interventions that enhances parenting skills in poverty homes results in cogntive gains
Effective scaffolding can take different forms -European- American parents emphasize independence - Homong immigrants emphasize interdependence and child obedience |
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In vygostskys view children and social environment collaborate to mold cognition in culturally adaptive ways such as speech
Vygotsky's view of private speech |
Private speech is the foundation for all higher cogntvie processes -use more when tasks are challenging (self guidance) -with age it's internalized as silent inner speech (internal verbal dialogues) -used more and longer by children with learning problems
Piaget called these self directed utterances egocentric speech -turn to social speech |
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Relationship between private speech and task difficulty |
Private speech rose as the task become moderate difficult then declined as it become highly difficult
Children more likely use private speech for quidance when tasks are within zone of proximal development |
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Challenges to Vygotsky's ideas |
Verbal dialogues are not the only means through which children learn
He says little about how basic motor, perception, attention, memory and problem solving skills contribute to socially transmitted higher congtive processes |
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Development of make believe play |
Play detaches from the real life conditions Play becomes less self centered Play includes more complex combinationa of schemes |
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Sociodramatic Play |
Make believe play with others thatis underway by the end of the second year |
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Importance of make believe play/ pretend play |
Play both reflects and contributes to children cogntive and social skills
Make believe play predicts a wide variety of contive capacities Pretend play uses and strengthens representational abilities In very society but had cultural variation
Hard to study -is spontaneous qualities including intrsitic motivation, postive emotion and child control -happens when observes are not present |
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Processes involved in pretend play (emerges around 2nd year) |
Decentration -shift from self as an agent to other as agent
Decontextualization -moving away from using realistic objects to less relatistic objects
Intergration -combining pretend acts to from sequences and narratives
Planning -how does my character act, what will be thr castle |
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Gender differences in pretend play |
Domestic themes
Rough and tumble or vigorous themes |
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Vygotsky's view of pretend play |
Make believe play is a unique activity in which children can try out different skills within the zone of proximal development Saw it as an ideal social context for fostering cogntive development -as kids create imaginary situations they learn to follow internal ideas and social roles rather than immediate impulses |
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Contemporary views in play |
Play is crucial for optimal development Play helps some developments but there are different pathways to the same postive outcome (not just Play will do: equifinality) Play is a byproduct of another important activity or capability which promotes development -Play itself makes no contribution (epiphenomenon) |
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What are executive functions |
High order cogntive processes necessary for the deliberate control of one's thoughts and actions
-dimensional change card sort (colour game, shape game) |
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Executive functions |
Congivitie flexibility -shifting between mutiple conflicting options
Working memory -keeping track of and manipulating information in mind
Inhibitory control -suppressing or inhibiting a response |
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Executive functions and development |
EF skills are related to social understanding, school readiness and academic achievement
Emerges in first year and rapid changes between 3-5
Related to maturation of prefrontal cortex
Plays a role in 4 phases of problem solving (problem representation, planning, execution and evaluation) |
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Components of excutive function are closely interrelated and contribute vitally to academic and social skills |
Preschoolers gain ability to inhibit impulses and focus on competing a goal
Flexible shifting of attention improves during the preschool years
Gains in working memory permit Preschoolers to generate more complex play and problem solving goals
Marked gains in planning -thinking about a sequence of acts ahead of time and performing them to reach a goal |
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Planning (executive function) -complex excitive function |
End of early childhood kids increasingly postpone action in favor for mapping out future moves, evaluating consequences and adjusting their plan |
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What fosters executive function skills |
Parental sensitivity, encouragement, and scaffolding
-children learn much from cultural tools that support planning (directions for playing games, diagrams for construction, recipes for cooking)
-Poverty exerts a negative impact on excutive function I'm part through maladaptive parenting practices and stress |
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3 ways children learn to problem solve -improves dramatically across childhood years |
1) development of rules -form rules for combining information and making judgments 2) reasoning by analogy -improves as a reflection of increased knowledge about items and relations 3) memory -short term memory storage space increases to allow for more complex forms of reasoning and problem solving |
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Overlapping waves theory |
Emphasizes that trying many strategies is vital for developing new more effective solution techniques When given challenging problems children: -try out various strategies -observe which work best, less well and which are ineffective -gradually select strategies on of basis of accuracy and speed As correct solutions become more strongly associated with problems in long term memory children display automatic retrieval |
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Memory changes |
Memory changes in preschoolers become explicit Recognition memory is nearly perfected by age 4 or 5 Young children's recall is much poorer than recognition -gains in recall associated with language development -recall is hindered by lack of skill at using memory strategies |
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The improvement of memory (recall) with age may reflect what |
Greater use of mnemonic strategies -rehearsal -organization into conceptual categories -elaboration of items by linkage to a general image or story |
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Episodic memory |
Memory for everyday experiences -recalled in context (time, place or person)
Between 3 to 6 children's improved capacity to bind together stimuli supports a rich episodic memory |
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Semantic memory |
Information removed from the context in which it was first learned that had become part if your general knowledge base Lists (recall isolated peices) |
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Scripts |
General descriptions of what happens and when it happens in a particular situation Routine events are remembered in scripts -become more elaborate and spontaneous with age
-help children interpret and predict everyday experiences and assist in recall, make believe play and planning |
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Autobiographical memory |
Reprentations of personally meanings, one time events
With age preschoolers increasingly include subjective information that explains the events personal significance -girls are more detailed (earlier first memories) -western children focus on own thoughts and emotions |
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Adults use two styles to elicit children's autobiographical memory |
Repetitive style -provide little information and keep repeating the same questions
Elaborative style -scaffold memories leading to better recall and more organized and detailed personal stories -follow child lead -ask varied questions -add info to child statements (own recollections) |
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The role of knowledge |
Expertise leads to -richer storage of information -facilitation of the use of mnemonic strategies -more rapid processing information |
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What is theory of mind |
Coherent set of ideas about mental activities -we have to figure out a way to make some inference about mental states (mindreading) -mind reading abilities studied through childrens theory of mind |
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Factors that contribute to preschoolers theory of mind |
Language and verbal reasoning
Executive function Make belive play Social interaction |
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Limitations of the young child's theory of mind |
View mind as a passive container of information
Understimate the amount of mental activity that people engage in
Poor at inferring what people know or are thinking about |
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Are they reflect on their own thought processes children construct a theory of mind -also known as metacognition (thinking about thought) |
Age 1 -view people as intentional beings who can share and influence others mental states
Age 2 -display clearer grasp of others emotions and desires (first verbs include mental state verbs)
Age 3 -realize that thinking is internal but focus only on behavior consistent with desires
Age 4 -realize that both beliefs and desires determine behavior and become aware of false beliefs |
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False belief understanding |
Understand that someone can have a belief or representation that differs from reality and can guide behavior Indicated that children differentiates between mind and world Unexpected transfer task/ location change |
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Transition to words |
Production of words involves gradual and continuous process
Infants began to utter sounds and then attach them to objects, situations or people
Speech building on babbling -children learn words more quickly that involve sounds and syllables thry already use -babbling continues with words emergence
First words appear around 22 months |
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Frist words and lexicons |
Acquiring words and learning their meanings starts after first birthday (holophrasic period or one word phrase) First words are usally familiar or important (food toys or family members) 18 months -lexicon of 50 spoken and 100 comprehended words 6 years (naming explosion) -lexicon of 10,000 words -related to ability to categorize objects |
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Fast mapping |
Vocabularies expand rapidly with
Fast mapping -connecting new words with underlying concepts after only a brief encounter (aquire meaning of word) Assumes children are predisposed to object- label relating Children use constraints or implicit assumptions about word meanings to narrow down the possibilities, facilitating word learning |
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Individual and cultural differences in vocabulary development |
Size of lexicon varies Referential style -nouns are learned first -words used primarily to label objects -used more by girls, first born, and middle upper class homes-English speakers acquire nouns frist -English speakers acquire nouns frist Expressive style -languahe used as a pragmatic tool to express needs and social interaction -larger mix of words types and frozen phrases -children speaking Asiana Guage acquire verbs more rapidly |
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Comprehension |
Comprehension is better than production Children benefit from mutiple examples of the same word used in a consistent manner in different contexts In noun friendly languages (english) xhildren aquire nouns sooner In verb friendly languages ( Japanese) children acquire verbs sooner -Verbs are not inherently harder to learn than nouns |
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Overextension vs underextension |
Over -happens when children us labels they already know for things whose names they do not yet know -difficulty of production not comprehension Under -happens when children fail to use known labels for appropriate things -more frequent in comprehension |
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Coining |
When children create new words to label objects or events whose labels are not known -decreases as lexicon grows -not part of adult language Grads comb for rake |
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Mutual exclusivity bias |
The assumption that words refer to entirely seperate categories |
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Syntactic bootstrapping |
Discovering word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax |
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Why do word learning strategies not fully explain vocabulary development |
Development cannot be innate because children acquiring different languages use different approaches
Vocabulary growth is governed by the same cogntive strategies that children apply to nonlinguistic information
Children may draw on a coalition fo cues (perceptual, social and linguistic) that shift in importance with age |
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Lexical contrast |
Children automatically assume a new word has a meaning different from that of any other word they know |
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Grammatical cues to learn word meanings |
Use cues from the structure of sentences to determine word meaning Cues used in the process of syntatic bootstrapping (mechanism of Semantic development in which children use syntatic cues to infer meanings) |
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While object assumption vs shape bias |
Object assumption -a new noun (word) refers to an entire object -not it's constituent parts Shape bias -a new word is extended to things of similar shape |
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Contribution of parents on word learning |
Children learn words when their social environment provides them with sufficient information about what different words mean Parents facilitate children's learning through implicit and explicit modeling -children vocabulary and word usage reflects parental styles Modeling is both incidental in daily life and explicit in specific teaching -parents talk to children about things they are already attending thus facilitating labeling process |
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Development of grammar |
Grammer involves: word order (syntax), inflections (adding endings to words to modify meaning) and intonation Don't not combine words toll 18 months -before they use series of one word statements 2-3 years -English speaking children use simple sentences that allow for basic subject-verb-object word order (2 or 3 word sentences) Telegraphic speech -leaves out unnecessary functi9n words (in, with, the) Overregularizatiom -overextension of grammatical ruled to words that are exceptions (I goed to the store) |
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Is there a universal language processing |
Controversy persists over whether a universal built in language processing device exists or whether children draw on general congtive possessing procedures
One view says that children rely on semantics to figure out grammatical rules (Semantic bootstrapping)
(Innate congtive strategies) (Competition model) |
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Semantic bootstrapping theory |
proposes a mechanism of grammatical develop in which children use Semantic cues to infer aspects of grammar children possess innate knowledge about rules of language and involves using knowledge of Semantics to learn grammar
-children first learn Semantic categories such as agents, actions or objects
-after established categories children begin to notice the orders of these categories in sentences ans which words precede them |
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Innate cogntive strategies theory for grammar |
Use innate cogntvie strategies for the acquisition of language rules
Example Slobins language making capacity -the strategies and learning principles that underlie language acquisition
-operating principles Pay attention to word order Avoid exceptions Pay attention to word endings |
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Competition model for learning grammar |
Children weight possible cues in terms of availability and reliability -blend of sociocultural and information processing theories Children do not acquire hard and fast rules but patterns of responding to cues |
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Pragmatics |
The practical social side of language -effective and appropriate communication -involves taking turns, staying in topic, stating messages Abilities grow with interactions with parents, adults and siblings Communicate their wishes and desires By 4 children adjust speech to fit the age, generd and social status of listeners |
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Self concept |
The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that an individual believes defines who they are |
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Self concept through the years |
Starts with observable characteristics, attributes, possessions and preferences
Moves more to abilities, typical behaviohrs, emotions and attributes
Until it moves to personalities, beliefs and values |
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What effects self concepts |
Warn and sensitive parent-child relationships foster a postive coherent self concept
Elaborative reminiscing on internal states play an important role in early self concept understanding |
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Caregivers interpretation and descriptions affect children's self concept |
Caregivers Interpretations and descriptions of a child's behavior shape what the child internalizes and how they come to understand and define themselves -early caregiver narratives launch self concepts
Chinese parents emphasize severity of children's misbehavior and it's impact on others -self image emphasizea sense of belonging and obligations to others (self esteem is negative)
Irish American parents downplay seriousness, attributing transgressions to spunk and assertiveness -self concept is autonomous |
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Self esteem |
Judgments we make about out own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments
Most important aspect of self development because affect emotion, behavior and adjustment
Fragmented as they done include others judgments and can't combine info of different domains
Preschoolers typically have self esteem which contributes to their initiative at a time when they must master many new skills |
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Preschoolers have several self judgments of self esteem |
Learning in school Making friends Getting along with caregivers Treating others kindly |
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Emotions and affect |
Emotions -internal reactions or feelings either psotive or negative -emotional development us supported by gains in representation, language and self concept
Affect -the outward expression of emotions through facial expressions and gestures
Ability to display and recognize affective states is the foundation of mutual regulation with the mother |
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Functions of emotions |
Motivate and organize us for action -emotions save time in getting us to act in important situations when we don't have time to think (over come obstacles) -that action of specific emotions is often hard wired biology
Communicate to and influence others -facial expressions are hard wired aspects of emotions (faster than words) -body language and tone also Communicate emotions -our communication of emotions influences others
Communicate to ourselves -emotions give us signals of important information about a situation (gut feeling) -sometimes we treat emotions as facts about the world (stronger emotion= belief its based on fact) -may use emotions facts to justify thoughts and behaviors |
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Emotional competence |
Preschoolers make strides in emotional competence -emotional understanding -emotional self regulation -self conscious emotions and empathy
Emotional competence is -strongly influenced by parenting
-vital for peer relationships and mental health |
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Understanding emotion |
Young children have an increasingly accurate understanding of the causes, consequences and behavioral signs of emotions At 4 once they understand that both desires and beliefs motivate behavior they can grasp how internal factors can trigger emotion expands 5 year Olds have ability to interpret predict and change others emotions however still have difficulty interpreting situations that offer conflicting cues about how a person is feeling |
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What does cogntvie development and secure attachment help children to learn |
Infer how others are feeling based on their behavior Realize that thinking and feeling are interconnected Find wats to relieve others negative emotions |
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Children's emotional underscoring is better developed when parents readily do want |
-Label and explan emotions -Express warmth and enthusiasm when conversing about emotions -discuss negative experiences and those involving disagreements Attachment security allows for more open parent child communication about feelings Knowledge about emotions are important for social relationships |
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Self regulation |
Ability to manage the experience and expression of emotions -language contributes to ability to manage and express emotion -temperament, parental modeling and parental communication about coping straties influence capacity for emotional self regulation (parent-child interaction) |
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Strategies for emotional self regulation |
Restricting sensory input Talking to themselves Changing their goals Repairing a relationship |
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Imaginations and emotions of fear |
Imaginations and limited grasp of the fanstasy- reality distinction make fears common -monsters -ghosts -darkness -preschool or child care -animals Phobias (intense fears) -may require counseling -others diminish as emotional self regulation improves |
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Basic primary emotions |
Happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness and disgust |
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Newborns two global arousal states |
Attraction to pleasant stimulation Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation |
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Self conscious emotions |
Higher order feelings involving injury to ot enhancement of sense of self -embarrassment (shown by looking away with smile) -envy -pride -empathy (crying in response to crying in another)
Appear in middle of second year
Require adult instruction in when to experience emotion
Vary from culture to culture |
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Prise and blame |
Become increasingly sensitive to praise and blame Around 3 self concise emotions are linked to self evaluation Parents can promote adaptive levels of pride and shame by focusing on how to improve performance, not on worth Consequences of shame for adjustment vary across cultures |
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Self evaluative emotions |
Children develop the ability to compare themselves to a standard
Jealously Shame and guilt appear between 2-3 |
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Empathy and sympathy |
Empathy -Ability to vicariously experience another's emotional state or reaction Empathy results in prosocial behavior -actions aimed at benefiting others Empathy can lead to sympathy -feelings of concern or sorrow for another -children with poor emotion regulation experience personal distress from emphasizing instead of sympathy |
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Development of Empathy is promoted by |
Sociable, assertive temperament Secure parent child attachment |
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What are the 4 forms if play thar coexist in childhood -midlred Parten |
Nonsocial play -unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play
Parallel play -play near other children with similar toys without trying to influence them -used as a way station into group activities
Associative play -engaging in seperate activities, buy exchanging toys and comments
Cooperative play -oriented towards a common goal, as in make believe theme (Rough and tumble play and sociodramatic Play are acciated with gains in emotional understanding and seldom regulation) |
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Types of solitary and parallel play (changes with age) |
Functional play (common during first 2 years) -simple, repetitive motor movements with or without objects -pushing car
Constructive play (3-6) -creating or constructing somthing
Make believe (sociodramatic) play (2-6) -acting 9ut everyday and imaginative roles |
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Only certain types of nonsocial play is cause for concern |
Aimless wandering Hovering near peers Functional play involving immature repetitive motor action
Cultures that value interdependence may be less excepting of children who engage in solidarity play |
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First friendships |
Friend is someone who likes you and whom you spend a lot if time playing with -friendship is not yet an enduring quality based on mutual trust Give more reinforcement (greetings) to those who they name as friends and recive more from them Early friendships contribute to later social competence -social conflicts offers times to practice social problem solving Ease of making friends predicts kindergarten Cooperative participation, task persistence and academic skills Socially competent children exceed more in academic scores |
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Social problem solving |
Generating and applying strategies that prevent and resolve disagreements Results in outcomes that that are acceptable and beneficial to self and others Social problem solving affects peer relations -improves with age and influenced by caregivers |
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Caregiver influenced on early peer relations |
Warm collaborative parent-child play promotes peer interaction skills Direct influences -arranging informal peer play activities -showing children how to initiate peer contacts -providing guidance on how to act toward others Indirect influences -secure attachment -sensitive, emotionally expensive parent child conversations and play |
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Moral development |
Young children show morally relevant inclinations and behaviors very early -some researchers propose an innate moral sense Social experiences and cognitive factors strongly influence moral development All theories recognize that conscience begins to take shape in early childhood -at frist it's externally controlled by adults -gradually comes to be regulated by inner standards |
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Psychoanalytic perspective of moral development |
Emphasizes identification and guilt as motives for good conduct
Guilt is an important motivator of moral action -disciplinary practices and fear and loss of parental love do not foster the development of conscience
Conscience formation through induction (where an adult helps make thr child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of misbehavior on others) Children's characteristics (temperment) affects successful induction parenting techniques (goodness to fit) |
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Adults induction role in conscience formation |
Helps make child aware of feelings by pointing out effects if misbehavior on others Gives children jnfo about hoe to behave that they can use in future situations Encourages empathy and sympathetic concern Encourages adoption of moral standards that make sense Encourages children to form a script that deters future transgressions |
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Children's characteristics and induction |
More empathic children are more responsive to induction Mild discipline is more effective with anxious children Parents of impulsive children can foster conscious development by -ensuring a warm harmonious relationship -combing firm correction if misbehavior with induction |
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Cogntivtie developmental perspective of moral development |
Views children as active thinkers about social rules
By 4 children consider intentions in making moral judgments and distinguish truthfulness from lying
Preschoolers can distinguish more imperatives from social conventions and matters of personal choice -moral reasoning is rigid
Gains in language, theory of mind, understanding emotions older preschoolers begin to reason morally by referring to others
Morally relevant social experiences (interactions with siblings, peers, parents) are vital for moral progress |
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Social rules children use as active thinkers about morals |
Moral imperatives -rules that protect people's rights and welfare -violations are more wring and deserving of punishment
Social conventions -customs determined something by consensus
Matters of personal choice -do not violate rights and are up to the individual |
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Social cogntive developmental approach to moral development |
Most concerned with children's moral reasoning
Advances in moral understanding depend on children's cogntvie development and linker to advances in cogngive processing
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2 methods in cogntive developmental approaches for moral |
1) more naturalistics -observed children playing games and looked to see how the kids created rules and enforced the rules of their own game 2) more experiential -presented individual children with moral dilemmas for children to solve (short stories where children determine which child is naughtier) |
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Piagets theory of moral development |
Developed a 4 stage model of moral development
Was curious about how children constructed their set if rules and enforced them across development and different contexts
Used moral dilemmas to assess children's thoughts on morality Theory emphasizes the role of congtive development along side moral development Emphasizes the importance ofndicsp experiences in moral develop |
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Piagets 4 stage model of moral development (Stage 1 and 2) |
1) pre moral stage (2-4 years) -children don't have any real conception of morality -play games with no rules and don't follow others rules
2) rule following emerges (5-7 years) -understand and use rules but are not flexible in rule use and change (moral realism) -consider the objective and physical aspects of a situation but they deal with moral concerns in an inflexible manner |
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What is moral realism characterized by |
Objective responsibility -children evaluate moral situations on the basis of the amount of damage
Immanent justice -inherent justice -belief that punishment must always follow a rule violation -punishment must always follow rule violation |
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Piagets 4 stage model of moral development (Stage 3 and 4) |
3) (8-11 years) -children recognize that rules are flexible social agreements -children now consider intention in their evaluations of morality (moral relativism) -rules created by people to protect people -following rules is a personal choice to cooperate with others -begin to modify rules
4) -children develop rules are needed and extend more reasoning beyond their personal level -social and political concerns are considered |
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Evaluation of piagets theory |
Research supports his findings -older children become increasingly attuned to motives and intentions -cogntive capacities underline moral judgment -peer relations are important for marol development However underestimated children moral reasoning abilities -processing demand of thr moral dilemmas is high |
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Social learning theory of moral development |
Believe that children learn to behave morally through reinforcement and modeling
Models are most influential in early years
Later children internalize provoical rules Harsh punishment promoted immediate compliance but not lasting changes in behavior |
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Characteristics of an effective model of moral behavior |
Warmth and responsiveness Competence and power Consistency between assertions and behavior -in what they say and do |
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Side effects of repeated harsh punishment |
Externalizing behavior problems Punishment models aggression Children react with anger, resentment and chronic sense of bring personally threatened Children develop a conflict ridden defiant relationship with parent Adults likely to punish more frequently and harshly over time Use of corporal punishment may transfer to the next generation |
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By the second year aggressive acts form |
Proactive aggression (instrumental aggression) -acting to fulfill a need or desire -callously used to advance goals -predicts severe conduct problem Reactive aggression (hostile aggression) -an angry defensive response meant to hurt another person -see hostility when it's not there (unprovoked attacks) Proactive aggression declines and reactive aggression increases in early childhood |
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3 forms of proactive and ractive aggression |
Physical aggression -emerges by end of frist year -more in boys Verbal aggression -used by both girls and boys Relational aggression -used by both girls and boys Biology and parental gender role attitudes contribute to gender differences in aggression -boys show more overall rates of aggression -persistent aggression predicts later difficults |
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Child rearing practices that undermine moral internalization are also linked to aggression |
Love withdrawal Power assertion Physical punishment Negative comment and emotions Inconsistency Ineffective discipline and conflict ridden family atmospheres promote children's aggression Boys are more likely to be targeted if harsh inconsistent disciple Children subjected to these family processes can develop social information processing deficits |
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Media violence and aggression |
Violent screen media increase the likelihood of -hostile thoughts and emotions -verbally, physically and relationaly aggressive behavior Exposure to violent media in childhood predicts aggressive behavior in early adulthood Boys devote more time to violent media Media violence hardens children to aggression Parents bear most responsibility for regulating exposure |
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Types of child maltreatment |
Physical abuse (18%) -assaults that inflict physical injury Sexual abuse (8%) -folding, intercourse, exhibitionism and forms of sexuap exploitation Emotional abuse (9%) -acts that could cause serious emotional harm Neglect (75%) -failure to meet children basic needs for food, clothing, education and supervision |
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Based on ecological systems theory what are the interacting variables that contribute to maltreatment |
Parents characteristics Child factors Family conditions Parental stress Community Larger culture Maltreating parents use ineffective disciple and hold negative biased views of child Unmanageable stress, lack of social supports, and social approval of force and violence for solving problems all increase risk |
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What are some of the consequences of maltreatment |
Impairs the development of attachment security, emtional regulation, empathy and sympathy, seld concept, social skills and academic motivation Adjustment problems including relationship problems, depression, aggression, substance abuse, crime Chronic abuse is linked to central nervous system damage Seems to blunt children normal physiological response to stress |
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What are child rearing styles |
Combinations of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child rearing climate |
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3 features that differentiate an effective style from less effective parenting style |
Acceptance and involvement Control Autonomy granting |
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4 kinds of parenting styles |
Authoritative (best) -high acceptance and involvement -adaptive control -appropriate autonomy Authoritarian -low acceptance and involvement -high control (both direct and psychological) -low autonomy Permissive (most common) -high acceptance -low involvement and control -high autonomy Uninvolved (2nd common) -low acceptance, involvement and control -indifferent autonomy |
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What makes authoritative rearing effective |
Warm involved parents model caring concen and confident self controlled behavior Children are more likely to comply with and internslize control that appears fair and responsible, not arbitrary Parent coney that thry are competent in this way fostering self esteem and maturity Supportive aspects of style are powerful sources of residence |
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Various ethical groups may have distinct child rearing beliefs and practices |
Chinese parents are more controlling than western parents and more often shame misbehaving Hispanic, asain pacific Island and Caribbean fammilrs combine insistence on respect for parental authority with high parental warmth Low SES African American parents tend to expect immediate obedience, fostering self control and vigilance |
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Gender typing |
Any association of objects, activities, roles or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes |
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Theory view of gender typing |
Social learning theory -gender typed behavior leads to gender identity Congtive development theory -self perceptions (gender constancy) come behavior behavior Gender schmea theory -combines both social theory and congtive theory Biological influences contribute as well |
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Gaining genders stereotyped beliefs and behavior |
Gain wide range of gender type beliefs which operate as blanket rules rather than flexible guidelines for preschoolers to associate common object, occupations, colors and behaviors with gender Gender stereotypes beliefs inflrjcdn play preference and personality traits Gender stereotyped beliefs strengthen in early childhood as a product of -gender stereotyping in environment -young childrenspeaks congtivie limitations Most preschoolers don't realize that characteristics associated with one's sex do not determine sex behaviors |
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Biological influences on gender typing |
Evolutionary adaptiveness of male and female traits Effects of parental hormones |
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Environmental influences on gender typing |
Family -different expectations of sons than of daughters -language use Teachers -actions that extend gender role learning Peers -postive reinforcement for gender types play and criticism for corss gender activities Broader social environment |
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Biological basis |
There is a biological basis to gendered behavior Prenatal hormones contribute to boys higher activity level and rowdier play and to children's preference for same sex playmates |
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Why are boys more gender typed |
Father's especially are more insistent that boys conform to gender roles Both fathers and mouths are more concerned with the cross gender behavior of sons -Parents who hold no stereotyped values and who behave accordingly have children who are less gender typed -Children of lesbian parents tend to be less gender types than their peers of heterosexual or gay parents |
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Gender socialization |
Parents, same sex older siblings, teachers, peers, and thr broader social environment (medua) also encourage many gender types responses |
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Gender identity |
An image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics -3 to 5 year Olds are unbending in their early sense if gender identity |
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Androgyny |
An identity scoring high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics Flexible dual gender identity children display certian mental health and scoail advantages |
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Gender constancy |
A fully understanding of the biologically based performance of their gender |
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Gender schema theory |
Explains how environmental pressures and childrens congtions work together to shape gender role development Young children pick up gender stereotyped preferences and behaviors form others Gender schemas (develop) -masculine and feminine categories used to interpret the world Some children often apply gender schemes to their experiences others rarely do For a gender schematic child, gender is highly salient in making decisions |
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Gender dysphoria |
Condition in which individuals are dissatisfied with their birth sex and strongly identify as another gender -different from children who display gender nonconforming behavior Embracing transgender children expressed identity predicts better adjustment Therapies aimed at suppressing other gender identity behavior yield poor results Theories must instead be aimed at permitting children to follow their gender identity inclinations and helping parents protect their children from others negativity |
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Gender dysphoria treatment |
Treatment may take for in puberty blockers, cross sex hormones or sex reassigmentent surgery -aim to bring one's physical body to aline with identified gender Delaying puberty allow for children to mentally mature while preventing them from developing a body they may not want Endocrine society does not recommend hormone treatment for prepubertal children as gender dysphoria can be assessed only after first signs of puberty -puberty blockers till 16 -cross sex hormones given after |
