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133 Cards in this Set
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What is social psychology |
The empirical study of the way peoples thoughts feelings and actions are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others -how people are influenced by construal |
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What is construal |
The way people perceive, comprehend and interpret the social world -subjective interpretations |
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Social psychology is an empirically based science. What is empirical science? |
Scientific method is used to collect data through experiments to test ideas and assumptions |
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How are social psych and sociology different |
Different level of analysis -social (individuals) -sociology (societal factors) |
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How are social and personality psych different |
Social focuses on what is sharer by most people Personality focuses on individual differences |
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What is the fundamental attribution error |
Tendency to overestimate the extent of a person's behavior is from internal factors (personality) and underestimate the role of external factors (situational factors) |
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What can the fundamental attribution error cause |
False sense of security, prediction and control (Feeling that negative events can't happen to us) |
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Study by Liberman, Samuels and Ross (2014) |
-asked students to predict if others would behave comprtitely or cooperatively in a stratagey game -students told it was a wall street game or community game (More influenced by the name or situational factor) |
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What is counterfactual thinking (ex of hindsight bias) |
Mentally undoing a bad or negative outcome when the outcome of behavior is known (Happens when we think the conditions causing the behavior could have been changed) |
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What is hindsight bias |
Tendency for people to exaggerate how much thry could have predicted the outcome after knowing that it happened (Leads to self deception) never do that (Leads to unjustified self blame) |
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What is gestalt psychology |
Stressed the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in peoples minds rather than the objective physical attributes of the object |
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Where did construals come from |
Basic human motives -be accurate about ourselves and the world -need to feel good about ourselves -need for survival |
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What is the self esteem approach |
The extent to which people view themselves in a positive way -need to maintain protive view -sacrifice accuracy to protect self esteem |
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What is the insufficient justification effect |
Happens when we lack a good external reason for why you did or containe to experience a painful or negative behaviour -people generate internal reasons to explain their behavior |
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What is social cognition |
How people think about themselves and the social world -how people select, interpret, remember and use social information (Accuracy motivation - our motivation to accurately know why a behavour happens) |
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The creation of expectations |
Understanding the social world is hard So we create expectations from part behavior about what should happen, what we would like to happen and what will happen (Can lead to self fulfilling prophecy) |
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Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) |
Teachers expectations of a students potential influenced the performance of the student (self fulfilling prophecy) |
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What is the evolutionary approach |
Explains social behavior and cognitive abilities in terms of genrryically based adaptations that were naturally selected in our past due to survival (Natural selection) |
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What is naive realism |
Belief that we see the world around us correctly and objectivity -people who disagree are uninformed irrational and foolish |
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What is the origin issue |
People are unaware of the reason why thry do the things they do |
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What is the rationalization issue |
When asked why they did something people will give an answer but it may not be the right answer |
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What is folk psychology or common sense |
Unreliable and innocent -we blame people through their personality or intelligence without the situation factor |
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What are operational definitions |
The precise specification of how variables are measured, relate to eachother and manipulated |
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What are the 3 types of methods |
Observational method Cortrlational method Experimental method |
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What is observational method |
Technique where a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behavior Ex. Ethnography and archival analysis |
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What is ethnography |
Method that researchers attempt to understand a group by observing it from the inside without improving preconceived notions |
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What is archival analysis |
Researchers examine accumulated documents, archives of a culture (Nun study) |
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What are the problems with observational methods |
- behaviour that happens in private is hard to observe -hard to make sure observers present accurate portrayal of social behaviour |
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What is interjudge reliability |
Level of agreement between 2 researchers who independently observed and coded the same set of data -make sure there is no subjective impressions |
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What is the correctional method |
Researchers systematically measure two or more variables and assess the relationship between them -level of prediction Ex surveys |
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What is the correlation coefficient |
Statistic that assesses how well u can predict one variable based on another +1 through 0 to -1 |
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Types of correlations |
Positive (increase in both variables) Negative (increase in one and decrease in another)
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Why use surveys |
Enable researchers to judge the relationship between variables that are often difficult to observe |
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What are problems with correlational methods |
- using surveys that are not randomly selected doesnt allow for population representation -how accurate info is from surveys -correlation doesn't tell the causal ditectiom of relationship (only related) |
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What is the experimental method |
Method where researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and are only different in independent variables -shows causal relationships |
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What is internal validity |
To be valid it ensures nothing other than the independent variable can affect the dependent variable By..... -controlling all extraneous variables -random assignment -control groups |
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What is confounded |
Due to extraneous variables there are 1 or more alternative explanations for the results |
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What is the probability level |
Statistical technique that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment happened by chance |
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What is external validity |
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and people |
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What are the 3 kinds of generalibility |
Across situations Across people Across cultures |
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Problems in generalization across situations |
Mundane realism (how simular it is to real life situations) Psychological realism (extent the experiment triggers the same predictions, decision making as would happen in everyday life.) |
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What is meta analysis |
Technique that averaged the results of two or more studied to see if the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable is reliable |
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What are feild experiments |
Conducting experiments in a natural setting -way to increase external validity |
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2 parts of generalization across cultures |
Etic processes (universal) Emic processes (shaped by the culture we live in) |
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What are the 2 types of thinking |
Automatic Controlled |
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What is automatic thinking |
Charaterizes behaviors we know well (habitual) -Thinking at is unconscious, involuntary and effortless -use schemas |
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What is controlled thinking |
Is conscious effortful and time consuming -think carefully about why and what they are doing |
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What are schemas |
Organize knowledge about the social world around themes and subjects (guide memory and fill in blanks) -they ecode information and relate new infro to what is in memory and provides a sense of continuity over time |
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What do schemas contain |
-what we know -the emotions associated -strength of associations between experiences people and objects |
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What are person schemas |
Knowledge of traits that go together in certain categories of people |
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What are role schemas |
Information about how people in certain roles should act and what they are like |
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What are event schemas (scripts) |
Knowledge about what is expected to happen in a situation, the sequencing of actions and props of accessories |
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What are self schemas |
Knowledge of our own traits behaviors and emotions |
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what are stereotypes |
Schemas about members of a social group -applues rapidly and automatically when we encounter others |
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Correll experiment |
Participants were more likely to judge an African American than a white man in a photo as holding a gun rather than a tool |
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Culture and schemas |
Culture effects our schemas -we pay attention to and remember the info that is important to our Culture |
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What determines what schemas are applied |
Priming Accessibility Self fulfilling prophecy |
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What is priming |
The process where recent experiences increase a schema or traits accessibility |
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What is accessibility |
Schemas that are at the top of people's minds are more likely to be used when making judgments about the social world -chronically accessible -relate to a goal -recent experiences |
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What is self fulfilling prophecy |
When peoples expectations about another person influences how they behave towards them which causes that person to become consistent with the original expectation |
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What ate heuristics |
Mental shortcuts or rules we use to process info quickly and efficiently without much thought or effort |
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What are availability heuristics |
Mental shortcut where people base a judgment on the ease with which thry can bring info to mind -if something can be easily recalled it must be important and correct |
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What are affect heuristics |
Tendency for people to use their emotional reaction to something to judge the goodness or badness of an idea situation or person -going with your gut -risk judgment |
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What are representativeness heuristics |
Mental shortcut where people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case |
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What is base rate information |
frequency of which different events happen in population -dont use base rate and representativeness at the same time |
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What are anchoring heuristics |
Cogntive bias where an individual depends too heavily on an initial piece of info (anchor) offered when making future decisions |
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What is counterfactual thinking (controlled thinking) |
Mentally changing some aspect of a negative event as a way of imagining what might have been -is no always voluntary |
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What is thought suppression (controled thinking) |
The attempt to avoid thinking about something u want to forget or put out of your mind Pepends on.... -monitoring processes -operating processes |
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What are monitoring processes |
Automatic process of searching consciousness for evidence that the unwanted thought is or about to intrude on consciousness |
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What are operating processes |
Controlled conscious attempt to distract oneself by finding something else to think about or suppressing the unwanted idea out if consciousness |
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What is the overconfidence barrier |
Barrier that comes from when people have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments |
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What is the dunning Kruger effect |
Cogntive bias where people with low ability or knowledge of a task overestimate their ability -comes from an inability to recognize a lack of ability |
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How to avoid over confidence barrier and dunning Kruger effect |
-consider other points of view -ask how u know u r correct -remeber the pitfalls of affect heuristics |
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Why do we spend so much time trying to explain the behavior of others |
Helps us predict and understand our social world and as a result guide and control out own behavior |
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What is social perception |
The study of how we form impressions of other people and make imprerences about them |
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What are non verbal communication |
The way in which people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without using words (Facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures) |
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Uses of nonverbal behavior |
Express.... -emotions -attitudes -personality -empathy -verbal messages |
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What did Charles Darwin believe |
Primary emotions are universal -all humans express emotions in the same way -all humans can interpret emotions with equal accuracy -was evolutionary not culturaly |
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What is encoding |
To express or emit nonverbal behavior |
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What is decoding |
To interpret the meaning of nonverbal behavior that other people express |
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What are the 6 universal facial expressions |
Anger Happiness Surprise Fear Disgust Sadness |
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Individualistic vs collectivist cultures |
American (I) is encouraged to express emotions (focus on target) Japan (c) is discouraged to keep harmony (focus on all elements) (Context affects facial expressions interpretation) |
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Why are facial expressions hard to read |
-appear less emotional than they are -display affect blends (more and 1 emotion) -culture, age and gender norms (display rules) |
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What is implicit personality theory |
Type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together (Culture bound) |
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What is attribution theory |
Describes the way people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior -happens when peoples behavior departs from normative expectations |
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Why are attributions important |
-they are central understanding of our own and others behavior -influence our emotion reactions to others -influence our decisions about future behavior |
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What is internal attribution |
An Inference that a persons behavior is due to something about him or her |
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What is an external attribution |
An inference that a person behavior is caused by something in the situation he or she was in |
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Why do we predict using attributes |
- understand the causes to anticipate and influence whats next -our understanding is biased towards internal attributes (people are more predictable than environment) |
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What does Kelley's covariation model suggests |
Theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs |
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3 types of info used in attributions |
Consensus info Distinctiveness info Consistency info |
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What is consensus info |
Info about the extent to which other people behave the same way as the actor does towards the same stimulus |
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What is Distinctiveness info |
Info about the extent to which the actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli |
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What is consistency info |
Info about the extent of behavior between one actor and the stimulus is the same across time and circumstances |
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What is base rate info |
People do not use or have access to consensus info and rely on Distinctiveness and consistency cues |
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What is the correspondence bias |
The tendency to infer that peoples behavior corresponds to or matches their disposition (fundamental attribution error) -overestimate cause to much Distinctiveness and consistency -underestmate cause ignore consensus info |
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What is perceptual salience |
Info that is the focus of people's attention |
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Correspondence bias on our own behavior |
We do not apply correspondence bias to ourselves -we focus on situational factors for our own behavior |
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What is self serving attributes |
Used when our skills or judgments are called to question -Take credit for our own success (internal attributes) -Blame others or situations for failures (external attributes) |
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What are defensive attributes |
Are explanations for behavior that help us avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality |
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What is unrealistic optimism (type defensive attribute) |
People think that more good things happen to them than to their peers Bad things are less likely to happen to them than to others |
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Belief of a just world (type of defensive attribution) |
The assumption that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get -bad things happen to bad people |
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Why do we maintain a just world |
-To maintain motivation to plan ahead for the future -reassure ourselves that bad things will not randomly happen to us (unrealistic optimism) |
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Why do we have inaccuracies |
Biases -correspondence bias -avtor vs observer bias -defensive attributes -over confidence effect |
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What are emblems |
Nonverbal gestures that have well understood definitions within a given culture (okay sign) |
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Actor and observer differences |
Tendency to see other peoples behavior as dispositionally cause and situational factors when explaining their own |
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What is self concept |
Our knowledge about who we are Regulates our... - behavior -choices -future plans |
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What is self awareness theory |
Proposes that when people focus attention on themselves thry evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values |
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What are self schemas |
Organized body of knowledge about the self that influences what we notice, what u think about and what u remember about yourself |
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What is the self reference effect |
-people remember info that relates to themselves -we recall flattering info about our self |
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What is self concept clarity |
The extent to which knowledge about the self is stable clear and consistently defined (Lower in asian) |
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What is collective interdependence |
Interdependence in relation to social groups such as sports teams clubs. -more in men -men have more of an interdependent view |
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What are relational or interdependent views |
Defining self in terms of their relationships with others -more in women |
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What is introspection |
Process where people look inward and examine their own thoughts feelings and motives (Not really used) (When used reason for behavior are unrelated to reason for behavior) |
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Self perception theory |
Theory that when our attributes and feelings are uncertain we infer these states by observing our behavior and situation in which they happen |
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What is intrinsic motivation |
Desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it and find it interesting -take part longer -keep interest -pleased with outcomes -seek out info about task |
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What is extrinsic motivation |
The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures -people lose interest when this replaces intrinsic |
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Overjustification effect |
People view their behavior as caused by extrinsic reasons making them understand the extent to which their behavior was caused by intrinsic reasons |
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Performance contingent rewards |
Rewards that are based on how well we perform |
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Task contingent rewards |
Rewards that are given for performing a task |
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Look |
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What is looking glass self |
Idea that we see ourselves through the eyes of other people and incorporate their views into our self concept |
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What is social comparison theory |
People come to know their own abilities and attitudes by comparing themselves to others -used when there is no fixed standard or uncertainty about ourselves -people who are simular |
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What is downward social comparison |
Where we compare ourselves to people who are worse than we are -self protective and self enhancing strategy -compare to past behavior -only if outcome cant happen to us -america |
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Upward social comparison |
Where we compare ourselves to people who are better than ourselves in a triat or skill -threatens our self esteem -lead us to try harder -Asia |
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What is self discrepancy theory |
Argued that we become distressed when our sense of who we truly are (actual self) is discrepant from our personal standards or desired state contained in our ideal self |
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What are the 2 types of discrepancies |
Between acutal self and ideal self Between actual self and ought self |
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What is the self enhancement view |
Then unrealistically positive view of oneself -americans |
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What is false uniqueness effect. |
Our gift are unique but others share our weaknesses |
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What are self effacement view |
Tendcy to hold a negative view of oneself -asians. |
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What is self verification theory |
People have a need to seek confirmation of their self concept whether the self concept is positive or negative |
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Look |
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What are causal theories |
Theories about the causes of ones own feelings and behaviors |
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