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141 Cards in this Set
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Personal control |
Motivation to exercise personal control over what does and does not happen to you
The strength which people try to exercise personal control is traced to to the strength of expectancies |
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What are expectancies |
A subjective prediction of how likely it is that an event will happen |
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There are two kinds of expectancies that cause the motivation to exercise personal control |
Efficacy expectation (can I do it) -is a judgment of one's capacity to execute a particular act or course of action
Outcome expectation (will it work) -is a judgment that a given action, once performed will cause a particular outcome -will behavior produce positive outcomes |
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Perceived control |
Pre performance, in performance and post performance expectancies regarding the extent to which one possesses the capacity needed to attain desired outcomes and to prevent undesired outcomes Beliefs and expectations the person holds that they can interact with the environment in ways that produce desired outcomes and prevent undiresed outcomes |
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For perceived control to happen a person needs two things |
1) self must be capable of obtaining the sought after outcomes 2) situation in which one attempts to exercise control over needs to be somewhat predictable and responsive to one's control attempts |
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Basic idea of perceived control |
If the world is predictable ans responsive and if you possess skills, experience effort, and utilize constructive strategies, then you can justifiably expect to have control over what matters to you |
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Two ways of apprasing and coping with failure (personal control beliefs can be seen in how we cope with failure) |
Challenge appraisal (high personal control) -failure as an opportunity for growth and learning -causes mastery coping strategies -leads to adaptive functioning and outcomess
Threat appraisal (low personal control) -failure as a danger to our well being (something is wrong with us that has caused the failure to happen) -causes defensive coping strategies -leads to maladaptive functioning and outcomes |
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Role of relationships when coping with failure |
If relationships are supportive we tend to appraise and cope with failure as a challenge that we can learn from
When surrounded by relationship thwarts we tend to appraise and cope with failure as a threat |
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Mastery coping |
Problem solving Guidance seeking Help seeking |
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Defensive coping |
Blame others Self denigration Rumination |
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What is self efficacy |
Judgment of how well one expects to cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances on faces Generative capacity in which the individual organizes and orchestrates all of his skills and abilities to cope with the demands and circumstances they face Capacity to use one's personal abilities well into effective performance in trying circumstances |
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Self efficacy and anxiety |
Self inefficacy causes anxiety and avoidance Self efficacy empowers approach based motivation Perceived inefficacy in coping with aversive events makes the events anxiety producing and threatening to us -the fear of being overwhelmed and not being able to cope is what causes anxiety If teachers can find ways to build coping skills in their students then students perceived capacity to cope (self efficacy) will eliminate their anxiety and avoidance motivations. |
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Sources of self efficacy |
Personal behavior history Vicarious experiences Verbal persuasion Physiological activity |
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Personal behavior history |
Learn current self efficacy from interpretations and memories of past attempts to execute the same beahviour
Once history has produced strong sense of efficacy an occasional incompetent encounter does not lower self efficacy much
Is performer is less experienced, new competent or incompetent enactment will substantially inform future efficacy |
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Vicarious experience |
Observing a model enact the same course of action the performer is about to enact
Seeing others masterfully raises the observes own sense of efficacy (social comparison)
Observing others perform clumsily lowers our sense of efficacy |
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The extent in which Vicarious experiences effect us depends on |
The similarly between the model and the observer
Less experienced the observer is at the beahviour the greater the impact |
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Verbal persuasion |
When effective pep talks persuade the performer to focus more on personal strengths and potentials and less on personal weaknesses (from inefficacy to efficacy)
Effectiveness depends on credibility, expertise and trustworthiness of the persuader
Provides temporary efficacy boost to generate motivation necessary for another try |
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Physiological state |
An absence of tension, fear, anxiety, and stress heightens efficacy by providing firsthand bodily feedback that one can indeed cope adequately with task demands |
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Self efficacy effects |
Choice Effort and persistence Thinking and decision making Emotional reactions |
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Choice The selection of activities and environments |
People seek out and approach activities and situations that they feel capable of adjusting to and handing People shun and avoid those activities and situations that they see as likely to overwhelm their coping capacities When people shun an activity out of self doubt they participate in a self destructive process that arrests or retards their development (self protective) Doubt plauged Avoidance has profound long term effects on development as avoidance decisions progressively restrict one's range of activities and settings |
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Effort and persistence |
Learning always has difficulties and obstacles which leave us vulnerable to doubt Self doubt leads people to slacken their efforts, settle prematurely on mediocre solutions and give up Self efficacy is a motivational resource that can be used during difficult problems to offset doubt and preserve effort and persistence Self efficacy doesn't silence doubt, it leads to a quick recovery of self assurance after setbacks |
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Thinking and decision making |
People who believe strongly in their efficacy remain clear headed during stressful episodes where people with doubts think erratically Self efficacy allows the people to stay task focused while self doubt distracts from task and toward thinking about deficiencies Self efficacy helps keep doubt anxiety and distress at bay |
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What do researches state about Self efficacy and anxiety |
The root cause of anxiety is low self efficacy Any sign of anxiety means that self efficacy is slipping |
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Empowerment |
Involves possessing the knowledge, skills and beliefs (self efficacy beliefs) that allow people to exert control over their lives Happens as efficacy and engagement replace doubt and avoidance |
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Mastery model in Empowering people through self efficacy training |
An expert in the skill area work with a group of relative novices to show them how to cope with situation Is formal procedure to utilize the 4 sources of self efficacy as a means to advance from anxious novices to confident masters |
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7 steps in mastery modeling program |
1) expert identifies the specific skills needed for effective coping and measures individuals efficacy expectations for each 2) expert models each component skill 3) novices emulate each modeled skill (given guidance and feedback) 4) intergrate individual skills into an overall simulated performance 5) participate in cooperative learning groups 6) perform in realistic situation while expert provides modeling and corrective feedback 7) expert models confident demeanor and arousal regulating techniques throughout the mentoring |
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Mastery beliefs |
Reflect the extent of perceived control one has over attaining desirable outcomes and preventing aversive ones |
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Mastery motivational orientation vs helpless motivational orientation |
Mastery motivation orientation -a hardy, resistant portrayal of the self during encounters of failure -responses to failure by remaining task oriented and focused on achieving mastery -failure feedback can be helpful and constructive information -focus on effort and strategy (what can be done)
Helpless motivational orientation -a fragile view of the self during encounters of failure -responses to failure by giving up and withdrawing -failure feedback is a sign of personal inadequacy -focus on low ability (why failing) |
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Learned helplessness orientation (Peeception of beahvior --- outcome non contingency) |
Is psychological state that results when an individual expects that life's outcomes are uncontrollable
Effort withdrawal, avoidance in the face if setbacks, failure feedback
Immature problem solving strategies -wild guesses and acting silly
Failure means I am not very smart |
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Mastery orientation (Perception of strong beahviour ---- outcome contingency) |
The psychological states that results when an individual expects that life's outcomes are controllable
Energized by setbacks, energized by failure feedback
Improve problem solving strategies -need to try harder, need a better strategy
Failure means the harder the task is the harder I need to try |
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What is the tell tale sign of helplessness |
How quickly, how emphatically the student gives up at the frist sign of a lack of control |
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Seligman and Maier 1967 |
3 groups -inescapable shock (no coping response can terminate shock)
escapable shock (pressing nose on button terminate shock)
control (no shock)
In phase 2 all recive an escapable shock (avoid shock by responding during a 10 second warning light by jumping to other side)
Escapable and control group all learn quickly to escape shock and jump over barrier
Inescapable shock group failed to escape from the shock (learned helplessness) -failed to learn due to inability to control shock in phase 1 -development of general expectation that behaviour is irrelevant to the shock offset -lack of control |
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When the outcomes are independent of the subjects beahviour, the subject develops a state of learned helplessness which is manifests in 2 ways |
There is a motivational loss indicated by a decline in performance and heightened level of passivity
The subject has a generalized expectation that reinforcers will containe to be independent of their beahviour
This persistent belief is the cause of the further learning deficit |
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Learned helplessness and depression |
Feelings of learned helplessness and loss of control are major antecedents to depression Helplessness individuals do not belive that their responses will have any effect on aversive or noxious events Giving people a controllable experience produces a proactive interference against attempts to induce helplessness |
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Hiroto's 1974 study |
Participants encounter an inescapable noise
Those in inescapable group set passively and were unwilling to attempt to escape from thr noise
Those in the escapable ans no noise groups learned quickly to escape the noise |
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Learned helplessness theory features three components |
Contingency Cognition Behavior
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Contingency |
Refers to the objective relation between a person's behavior and the environments outcomes
Exists on a continuum which ranges from uncontrollable outcomes to controllable outcomes |
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Cognition |
Cognitive interpretation takes place between objective environmental contingencies and a person's subjective understanding of personal control in such enviroments
Mental events distort these relationships
Outcome beliefs stem from objective information about the world and individual peoples unique biases, attributes and expectations |
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Behavior |
Coping behavior to attain or to prevent outcomes exist on a continuum
Lethargy, passivity, demoralized effort that characterizes the behavior of helplessness
Alertness, activity, snd assertiveness characterize people who are not helplessness |
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Seligman reports 3 kinds of deficits that follow learned helplessness |
Motivational deficits Cognitive deficits Affective deficits |
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Motivational deficits |
Consist of a decreased willingness to try
When people care about an outcome and when the environment is at least somewhat responsive in delivering those outcomes, they act assertively in brining about those outcomes |
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Learning (cognitive) deficits |
Consist of an acquired pessimistic mindset that interferes with one's ability to learn new response- outcome contingencies
Once expectancies take on a pessimistic tone, the person has a very difficult time learning that a new response can affect outcomes |
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Emotional (affective) deficits |
Consist of affective disruptions in which lethargic, depressive emotional reactions occur in situations that call for active, assertive emotion
Once convinced not escape, the resulting expectation makes energy mobilizing emotions less likely and makes energy depleting emotions more likely |
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Attribution |
An attribution is a causal explanation for why a particular success failure outcome occurred
Explanatory style |
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Many different attributions are possible, but all atticutions can be places within three categories |
Internal vs external causes -related to affect and self esteem
Stability (stable vs unstable) causes -consequences of the event (long or short term)
Global vs specific causes -domain specificity |
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External vs internal explanatory style |
External -believing that the causes of events are outside of one's control
Internal -blaming yourself for events |
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Stable vs unstable explanatory style |
Stable -the cause of a situation is permanent and stable
Unstable -causes of events are temporary and not long lasting |
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Global vs specific explanatory style |
Global -caused affect many situations in all of life
Specific -events happen due to very specific caused |
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What is an explanatory style |
Is a relatively stable, cognitively based personality variable that reflects the way people routinely explain why bad events happen to them |
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Two kinds of explanatory styles |
Pessimistic -emphasizes internal, stable and global causes -good event (external, unstable, specific) -bad event (internal, stable, global)
Optimistic -emphasizes external, temporary and specific causes -good event (internal, stable, global) -bad event (external, unstable, specific) |
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Pessimistic explanatory style |
Predisposes people toward giving up in times of failure and setbacks (less likely to presit after failure)
manifests itself as a tendency to explain bas events with attributes that are stable and uncontrollable
Puts a person at risk for feelings of helplessness and poor adjustment
-pessimistic style in college predicted poorer health 20 to 35 years later |
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Optimistic explanatory style |
manifests itself as the tendency to explain bad events with attributes that are unstable and controllable
Illusion of control is an attributional phenomenon that fosters an optimistic explanation style
These people readily ignore negative self related information, impose distorting filters on incoming information, and interpret postive and negative outcomes in self protecting ways
Is a functional asset because a mentally healthy person appears to have the enviable capacity to distort reality in a direction that enhances self esteem, maintains beliefs in personal efficacy and promotes an optimistic view of future |
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Seligman and Schulman 1986 |
Assessed life assurance agents explanatory styles and recored which agents performed well or poorly and which were more likely to quit
Pessimistic agents were more likely to quit and those who continued to work performed significantly worse than did their more optimistic peers. |
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Pessimistic explanatory style is associated with |
Academic failure Social distress Physical illness Imparted job performance Depression Electoral defeat in presidential elections |
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Explanatory styles in the work place |
Optimistic do between in the work place
Less important in second year -Optimistic may be going to better work and pessimistic may be giving up
Optimistic have higher survival rates (stay with organization more) |
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Hope and explanatory style |
Hope involves an explanatory style in which problems are regarded as temporary and specific to a given situation (Optimistic) |
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Helplessness and depression |
Some view learned helplessness as a model of naturally pccusung depression
Are similar in the same expectations cause both -expects bad things will happen -nothing can be done to prevent them
Depressed individuals do sometimes see thr events in their lives as leds controllable than others
Perhaps the root of depression lies in a depressed person's inability to recognize that he has more control over his life outcomes |
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Is depression caused by people's belief that their world is largely an uncontrollable place? |
No Depressed individuals accurately assess their extent of control
It is non depressed people who miss perceive their extent of control |
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Alloy and Abramson 1979 |
Test depression question by having depressed and non depressed college students push a button on some trial and not in others
Depressed individuals and non depressed individuals accurately judged how much control they had in situations except one
Depressed individuals accurately judged that they had no control in the no control situation
Nondepressed individuals misperceived how much control they had and overestimated their perceived control in the no control situation |
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What is reactance |
Is the psycholgocial and beahvioural attempt at reestablishing an eliminated or threatened freedom -experience this only if we expect to have control over what happens to them, and react by becoming more active and even aggressive |
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Reactance theory |
Like learned helplessness theory it focuses on how people react to uncontrollable outcomes People show active reactacne coping when faced with uncontrollable outcomes to try and regain control If lack of control continues people then show passive helplessness coping |
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Mikulincer 1988 |
One group worked on 1 unsolved problem a second group worked on 4 unsolved problems and third group didn't work on any. Then second phase all groups worked on a hard problem Participants given 1 problem profrmed the best and had reatance motivation -increased problem solving performance Participants given 4 performed the worst and had helplessness -decreased problem solving performance Those with 0 had natural motivation |
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Expectancy value model |
Expectancy and value both predict achievement related performance and choices Expectancies more strongly predicts performance Value more strongly predicts choices |
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Value |
Is the perceived attractiveness of a task |
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For components of value |
Interest value (task enjoyment) Utility value (usefulness) Attainment value (importance to self) Costs (psychological barriers or negative consequences) |
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Value intervention study |
Independenrt variable: Value boost -participants are asked to discover the personal relevance of the course material
Dependent variable: perceived value -how much value do you see in this course?
For participants with low initial course value this value boost intervention does seem to increase course value, achiemvent, and intentions
For participants with high initial value the intervention has little effect |
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6 indicators of positive self functioning |
Self acceptance -accepts goof and bad qualities Positive relations with others -warm, satisfying relationships Autonomy -regulates beahviour from within Environmental mastery -sense of environmental mastery Purpose in life -has aims and objectives for living Personal growth -sees improvement in the self |
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What are the 4 problems or striving of the self |
(Self as an object) Define the self Relate the self to society (Self ad an agent) Develop personal potential Regulate the self |
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What are the two views of self |
Self as an agent (doer)
Self as an object (Self concept) |
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Self as an agent |
Self is an agent that initiates action
Is the I - I will play tennis today
Is an inherent inner motivational force that cannot be observed directly but is inherred through intentions, striving and action
Discovering and developing potential of the self reflects and requires agency |
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Agency |
Means that an agent (the self) has yhe power and intention to act |
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Self as an object |
The self Is and object to be perceived, evaluated, labeled and known
Is the me -me = tennis player
Is the social cognitive self that is acquired through learning, appraisal and social feed back Defining the self shows how self concept energizes and direct beahviour |
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What is the problem with self esteem |
The problem with trying to boost self esteem as a motivational intervention us that there are almost no findings that self esteem caused anything at all -self esteem is caused by a whole panoply of successes and failures Instead of thinking of self esteem as a motivational cause it is better to think of self esteem as an effect of postive vs. Negatvie functioning (as an outcome) Self esteem reflects how life is going but not a source of motivation that allows people to make life go well Self esteem is merely the downstream consequence of the self adaptive and productive functioning |
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What Is self concept |
Are individuals mental representations of themselves Set of beliefs an individual uses to conceptualize themselves Constructed from experiences and from relections on those experiences Cluster of domain specific self schemas |
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Self schemas |
Are cogntive generalizations about the self that are domain specific and learned from part experiences Which ones are involved in the definition of the self concept are those that are most important to the person |
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Benefits of well developed self schemas |
Process information about the self with relative ease Quickly retrieve self related beahvioural evidence from the domain Confidently predict his own future behavior in the domain Resist counter schematic information about self |
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Two motivational properties of self schemas |
Consistent self Possible self |
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Consistent self |
Self schemas direct beahviour to confirm the self view and to prevent episodes that generate feedback that might disconfirm that self view
Perseve a consistent self by actively seeking out information consistent with with self concept
Inconsistency and contradiction generate an emotional discomfort that signals that consistency needs to be restored
We intract with people who treat us in consistent ways and adopt self presentational symbols to announce who we are so people see us as we see ourselves
It is the negatvie affective state that produces the motivation to seek self confirmatory and avoid self disconforimatory |
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When self discrepant feedback does happen what do we do |
First try to disort that information - may ask if the feedback is valid, if the source of feedback is trustworthy, and how important the feedback is
Also counter feedback with compensatory self inflation and a barrage of new beahviours to prove ones actual self view |
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Possible self |
Self schemas generate motivation to move the present self towards a desired future self
An ideal possible self initiates goal directed beahviour
Seeking possible selves is a goal setting process that invites self concept change and development where seeking consitist self view is a verification process |
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Self concept certainty |
An individuals confidence that his or her self schema is valid and true
When high, self concept certainty anchors stable self schemas - feedback rarely changes a stable self schema
When low, self concept certainty, discrepant feedback can eventually instigate self schema change If feedback is invalidated self concept certainty increases If feedback is validated self concept change can happen |
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When self concept certainty Is moderate |
The person experiences the self verification ciris During the crises the individual suspends judgment and seeks out additional feedback If feedback is very convincing the self verification crisis does not change the self view but lowered self concept certainty If feedback is invalidated self concept certainty increases If feedback is validated self concept change can happen |
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What must happen before self schemas change |
1) self concept certainty must be low 2) self discrepant feedback must be potent and difficult to discredit Change is rare is the exception |
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Why people self validate |
Cognitive -because they seek to know themselves Epistemic -because validations of self bolster perceptions that the world is predictable Pragmatic -because wish to avoid interactions that might be fraught with misunderstanding and unrealistic expectations and performance demands |
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What are possible selves |
Representations of attributes, characteristics and abilities that the self does not yet possess Mostly social in origin -as the individual observes the selves modeled by others It's motivational role -is to link the present self with ways to become the possible ideal self (comparison) An important piece of the puzzle -in understanding how the self develops Portrays the self as a dynamic entity -with a past present and future |
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Identity |
Is both a psyvholgocial and sociological phenomenon Is the means by which the self relates to society, as it captures the essence of who one is when a cultural context |
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Identity sociologcially |
Identity is the means by which the self relates to society
Is ones place in society
Once people assume social roles their identifies direct their behaviors in ways that express the role identity cultural value
Identity directs the person to pursue some beahviours (identity confirming beahviours) and avoid other beahviours (identity disconfirming beahviours |
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Identity psychologically |
Identity is whether the role or social position or description feels right and connects well with onse self concept or feels wrong in terms of a Mismatch between self concept and social role |
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Agency Self as action and development from within |
Human beings possess a core self, one energized by innate motivation and directed by the inherent developmental processes of differentiation and intergration
Not all self structures are not equally authentic as some self structures truly reflect the core self while others reflect and reproduce the needs and priorities of society |
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Differentiation |
Expands and elaborates the self into an ever increasing complexity
Proceeds as the individual exercises interests, preferences and capabilities in such a way that a relatively general self becomes specialized into several life domains |
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Intergration |
Synthesizes that emerging complexity into a coherent whole thereby preserving a sense of single cohesive self |
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True self |
Reflects the extent to which one is in touch with inner experience (goals, interests) A close connection between inner experience and actual behavior exists A false self is one in which the inner experiences are ignored so there is little connection between inner experience and ones beahvior |
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Two questions asked in the Self concordance model |
How do people decide what to strive for in their lives?
How does this personal striving process sometimes nurture the self and promote well being yet other times go arry and dimish well being? |
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Self concordance |
People deciding to pursue goals that are congruent or concordant with with core self , they pursue self concordent goals Identified and intrinsic goals represent self concordant goals Introjected and extrinsic goals represent self discordant goals |
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Self concordance model |
Begins when the person sets a goal It asks why Some goals reflect the emanate from the core self needs and interests while others do not Self concordant goals are motivationally important because they generate and sustain greater effort, enthusiasm and agency Which increases the liklihood goal attainment. These goal attainments motivated by self concordant goals foster need satisfying experiences This satisfying experiences increase well being |
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Intrinsic goals vs extrinsic goals |
Intrinsic goals -aspirations and pursuits that are inherently satisfying because their pursuit gives rise to frequent and recurring opportunities for the goal striver to experience autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction along the way Extrinsic goals -aspirations and pursuits that require contingent regard or affirmation from others and are therefore neutral or unsatisfying because their pursuit veers the goal strivers thoughts and beahviours off in a direction in which need satisfaction tends to be neglected |
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Typical intrinsic and extrinsic goals |
Personal growth, relationship growth, community contribution Money, fame, fortune, popularity, celebrity status |
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What is self regulation |
The deliberate planning, monitoring and evaluating of one's academic work (goals) The deliberate planning, monitoring and evaluating of one's cognitive and emotional processes prior to and during the undertaking of academic tasks |
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What is the opposite of self regulation |
The opposite of proactive planful self regulated learning is a reactive let's see what happens and hope for the best approach of learning |
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Self regulation process |
Begins with setting a long term goal that involves each of the following that happens over time -planning and strategic thinking -implementing action and self control -monitoring and checking -reflecting and adjusting |
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Planning and strategic thinking |
An individual generates a plan of action and adopts strategies |
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Implementing action and self control |
Once goal setting has happened move to goal striving and self control
Goal striving requires cogntive, motivational, and emotional work because plans need to be implemented.
Self control requires the suppressing of short term implies |
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Monitoring and checking |
Need to monitor the goal performance discrepancy and whether it is being reduced and progess is being made |
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Reflection and adjusting |
Need to reflect on why self regulation succeeded or failed
Once understood future self regulatory efforts need to be revised and updated to better psotion the individual for future self regulation success |
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Self regulation involves three processes |
Forethought -effective self regulation begins and ends with effective forethought Performance Reflection -learn and strategically improve how they manage their own leaning and their own goal setting |
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How do students become effective self regulated learners |
Effective self regulation involves the capacity to carry out the full goal setting process on one's own Students typically learn how to do this through social processes including modeling, instruction and social guidance from a mentor who shows students how to set goals, how to make a plan, how to identify an effective strategy and how to evaluate one's own progress within the goal setting process |
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Social learning process through expert model |
Observe expert model Initiation, social guidance, feedback Internalization of standards Self regulatory process |
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Self control |
Is thr capacity to suppress, restrain and even override an impulsive desire, urge, behaviour, or tendency so to pursue a long term goal Interrupts out tendency toward short term attractions and instead steer behavior intentionally in the direction of long term goals Willpower |
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Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Mutaven and Tice 1998 |
Participants perform a task that requires self control (eat radishes not the cookies in experimental group) In 2nd part all participants do a task that requires self control (geometry problem) How long will the participants persist before giving up |
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Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Mutaven and Tice 1998 results |
The radish consuming participants don't have the same level of energy available for them to persist on the difficult problem Because self control is depleting the people who ate only radishes become tired and perform poorly on follow up task (don't persist long) |
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7 bored spheres of self control |
Surprising impulses, usages, desires -sweets Managing and suppressing emotions Controlling and fixing thoughts Controlling and fixing attention Making decisions and lots of choices Managing the impression one is making of others Being kind to and dealing with difficult people |
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What can replenish self control |
Glucose Orange juice, lemonade or milk shake Nuts fish fruits meat cheese |
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Limited strength model of self control |
Effective self control is the use of will powe to help translate the pursuit of a long term goal into gain attainment Depletion of self control leads to long term goal failure Self control may be increased through training and nutritional replenishment We can't pursue mutiple long term goals because it's causes self Depletion and self regulation failure -is too depleting to pursue mitiple long term goals |
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Is the capacity to exert self control beneficial to life success |
The enduring capacity to resist the immediate gratification of short term attraction is a personality variable with one of the best track records of predicting who does live a successful life |
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Marshmallow experiment |
Young children is given a marshmallow and told they can eat it but if they hold off and wait 15 min then they will get a second marshmallow to eat Some children ate it right away while others were able to wait the full 15 When younf adults they are assessed how they are doing in academic achivment, peer popularity, physical health, proneness to aggression, susceptibility to various addictions and other indicators of a successful life |
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Marshmallow results |
Which will high self control have High grade point averages High standardized tesr scores We're socially more popular We're objectivity healthier We're proscial rather than antisocial We're generally free of abuse of drugs/ alcohol |
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Also shower that High self control leads to |
Less relationship conflict Less overspending Less violence Less obesity |
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Differences between unconscious and conscious influences on behavior? For self control |
Unconscious influences are influenced by current movies and immediate goals (short term perspective) Conscious influences are influenced by long term goals (long term perspective) Having self control and pursuing long term goals is more effortful |
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Muraven 1998 control the expression of emotions |
Participants saw a humorous or sad movie clip for 10 min Some participants were told not to show any emotions Other did not receive any instructions After warfs participants worked on a series of anagrams Those with no suppression solved more anagrams |
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Job, Dweck and Walton 2010 |
Participants completed item assessing implicit theories about willpower, specifically their theories about the effects of mental exertion -"after a strenuous mental activity your energy is depleted and you must rest to get jt refueled again" -"Your mental stamina fuels itself, even after strenuous mental exertion you can continue doing more of it Then completed a stimulus detection task All participants asked to cross out each e On second page some people were again instructed to cross out e while others were asked to not cross out an e followed by a vowel task) Then completed a standard measure of ego Depletion (Stroop task) -instructed to press key marked with the colour the word was written in -instructed to press key marked with the colour the word was written in |
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Job, Dweck and Walton 2010 results |
Participants with a limited resource theory showed the usual Depletion pattern -making more mistakes after the depleting task Participants with a nonlimited recourse theory showed no difference in accuracy between the depleting and nondepleting conditions Support the hypothesis that implicit theories about willpower moderate ego Depletion Only Participants with a limited recouse theory shower Depletion Those with nonlimited recourse theory showed no difference |
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Guilliot, Peruche, Plant and Baumeister 2009 |
Prejudice and stereotyping require self control Glucose was manipulated via lemonade sweetened with either sugar or Splenda Compared to the control group those in the glucose condition used fewer stereotypes when writing an essay about a day in the life of gay men High prejudice individuals in the glucose condition used fewer statements in their essays than high prejudice participants in the control condition |
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Goal congruent emotions |
Facilitate and sustain the attainment of personal goals Positive emotions |
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happiness |
Defined in two ways -rate how good a person feels at a given moment -series of questions of how people evaluate their lives both affectively and cognitively (subjective well being) |
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Myth of happiness |
Life is difficult and few people are happy, money makes people happy, we cannon become happier |
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Biological component of happiness |
About half the variance of subjective well being is from heritability Is positively related to extraverson and negatively to neutoticism Positively related to goo social relationships Positive emotions linked to an active left prefrontal cortex and negatvie emotions linked to the right prefrontal cortex Pursuit of happiness is universal quality of humans |
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Learned/ cogntive components of happiness |
A result of learning to conquer fear and make plans, our ancestors were less under the direct fight flight response and became to experience positive emotions more of the time Likely provided the incentive and motivation to think and plan Results in avoiding pain and helping achieve goals Comes from doing things that are satisfying in themselves (intrinsic motivation) Occurs most strongly when a person has finished a flow activity |
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Happiness and coping |
Sometimes the best we can do is make reasonable progress toward dealing with external demands as well as goals Even in a state of ambiguity, people can and do experience happiness |
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What are the 4 main qualities linked to happiness |
Extraversion, optimism, self esteem and personal control |
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Snowdon Health and longevity the nun study |
180 catholic us American nuns Handwritten one page autobiographies at the age of 22 were coded for individual differences in the use of postive and negatvie words Those that were more psotvie and cheerful lived longer At 85 79% were alive compared to 54% At 93 52% were alive compared to 18% |
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Arnhem elderly study |
Assessed self reported optimism in Dutch participants with a mean age of 74 Optimism (still have many goals to strive for) Longevity was tracked over thr following 9 years During this period 49% of the mean and 36% of women died (lower optimism) |
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Income and happiness |
Over the years we are making more money but we are not collectively happier |
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Harker and Keltner 2001 Expressions of postive emotion in women's college yearbook pictures the relationship between pereinality and life outcomes |
female college students who smiled more in their yearbook pictures were more likely to be married by age 27 and reported greater marital satisfaction by age 52. |
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Goal uncongruent emotions |
Results show both adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies to loss of a major sale to a competitor Self control buffered the averse effort of negative emotion and performance, an adaptive coping strategy Venting amplified the adverse effects of negative emotion and maladaptive coping strategy |
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Clore and Huntsinger 2007 How emotions unform judgment and regulare thought |
Examples of serial reproductions of a drawing from memory showing that the schema of a face guides the construction of memory ?????? |
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Frederick Bartlett |
Showed students a drawing of an African shield and asked them to draw it from memory
He gave their drawings to others, asked them to reproduce the drawing from memory
These drawings were then reproduced from memory by a third group and so on
The reproductions of drawings gradually began to look more like a portrait of a man and less like an African shield
The schema of a face suggested guided people's memories
Illustrating Barletts theory of constructive memory |
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The classic experiment has been repeated with the addition of mood |
Blind ratings of drawings that resulted showed that those reproduced by individuals in a happy mood were more face like than those reproduced in sad moods Prostive affect thus seems to promote the use of accessible schemas, where nagatvie affect inhibits their use, leading to more local and stimulus bound processing |
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Sad moods decrease false memories and forgetting |
Thirst six word lists, each comprising words associated with a non presented lure Relational processing of happy and control groups resulted in the false recall of many lures where item specific processing in sad moods were more accurate |
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Affect regulates global local focus |
Those happy had a more global focus as they say the three triangles is more similar to the target picture of 3 squares Neutral groups are similar Sad groups had a more local focus as they say the choose the comparison picture in which the 4 squares are the same as the squares in the target picture |
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Cogntivie phenomenas influenced by affect |
Semantic priming Global superiority effect Heuristic processing False memories Schema guided memory Retrieval induced forgetting Stereotyping |
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Affect and memeoy |
Many of the hallmark findings of cogntvie psychology seem to be moderated by affect Indicates that postive affect leads to rational (cogntvie, interpretive, category level and global) processing where's negatvie affect leads to referential (perceptual, item level and local processing) |
