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119 Cards in this Set
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What is motivation |
Any internal process including needs, cognition and emotion that gives behavior its energy, direction and persistence |
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What is energy |
Strength of behavior
It is strong, intense and hardy/ resilient |
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What is direction |
Purpose of behavior
It is aimed or guided toward achieving some particular goal or outcome |
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What is persistence |
Endurance of behavior
It sustains itself over time and across situations |
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What is need |
Conditions within the individual that are essential for the maintenance of life and the nurturance of growth and well being |
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What is cognition |
Mental events capable of energizing and directing behavior |
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What is emotion |
Short lived, feeling arousal purposive expressive phenomena that helps us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events |
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Why do we study motivation and emtion |
Finish????? |
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How do we benefit from studying emotion and motivation |
Theoretical understanding -learn how to explain what they are ans how they work
Gain practical know how -where does it come from -how it can be increased -how to motivate ourselves -how to motivate others |
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Scientific method |
Observation Measurement Replication forecast |
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Science measurements |
Motivation researchers rely heavily on behavioral and physiological measures but only lightly on self report measures |
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Motivational science |
answers to motivational questions need objective, data based, empirical evidence gained from well conducted and peer-reviewed research
Hypotheses need to be put to objective empirical test to assess their scientific merit
Need to study just as many avoidance based motives as approach based motives |
The science part to motivational science is very important |
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What is the nature of science and theory |
A strategy for manipulating observations and through that manipulation accounting for how reality appears to us
Explores causality and connection
Helps researchers understand the complex phenomena theu study |
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What is a theory |
A systematic ser of interrrelated statement intended to explain some aspect of social life
Or enrich our sense of how peo0le conduct and find meaning in their daily lives |
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What are the 3 key elements of a theory |
Propositions Deductive systems Explanations |
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Propositions |
Statements about the relationship between some elements on the theory |
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Deductive systems |
Moving from general, abstract propositions to particular abd testable statements |
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Explanations |
Explain why somthing occurs |
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Major functions of theories |
Guide and direct research and practices -ecological systems theory -family systems theory -social learning theory
Intergrate and explain observations made in diverse settings |
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Two major bases for evaluating a theory |
Falsifiability Utility |
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Falsifiablity |
Demands that it is possible for data to be gathered that conflicts with the predictions of a theory |
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Utility |
Implies that the theory should both explain and predict events with better than chance accuracy |
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4 aspects of a theory |
It prescribes method of its own verification (falsifiability)
It prescribes method of collecting data
It has identifiable goal
It has utility |
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What and theories accomplish (what are the types of goals of theories) |
Description
Manipulation
Emancipation (liberation from prior constraints) |
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Concepts |
Mental constructs or images developed to symbolize ideas, persons, things or events |
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Nominal definitions |
Verbal definitions in which scientists agree that one set of words or symbols will be used to stand for another set of words or symbols |
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Operational definition |
Definitions that indicate the precise procedures, or operations to be followed in measuring a concept |
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Measurement |
The process of moving from nominal to the operational level |
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Variable |
A set of attributes selected by the researchers to define a single concept
Must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive |
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Construct |
A set of variables (indicators) that together define a multidimensional concept such as depression |
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Independent and dependent variable |
Independent -the presumed active or causal variable -cause or influence the outcomes of other variable
Depenendent -the passive variable or one that is affected |
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Intervening or control variables |
These mediate the influence of the independent variables on the dependent variables |
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Spurious or extraneous variables |
variables that could logically influence the outcomes of dependent variables but not included in the study as independent or intervening variables |
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Two perennial questions of motivation |
What causes behaviour
Why does behavior vary in its intensity |
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Self esteem and academic achievement |
Correlation betten self esteem sophomore year and academic performance senior year is about the same as academic performance sophomore year and self esteem senior year
Can't know which causes which or if there is a 3rd factor |
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Self esteem |
Self esteem is a consequence not and antecedent |
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Self esteem and aggression |
Low self esteem is a trait that predisposes people to aggressive behavior -inferiority makes people want to harm those they see as better then themselves
Emerged from clinical impressions -not theoretical or empirical evidence
Baumeuster concluded perpetrators of aggression usally has favorable ans inflated views of themselves
Aggression comes from threatened Egotism |
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Threatened Egotism |
a positive view of self that I'd questioned or attacked by other people |
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Self esteem, aggression and narcissism |
Narcissism is a significant predictor of aggression
Narcissists are more aggressive than others when provoked -no elevated rates of displaced or unprovoked aggression
Inflated self esteem (better than everyone else) is also associated with socially undesirable behaviors -defensiveness or narcissism |
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What caused behavior?
What are the specific broken down from this general question that constitute the core problems needed to be solved in motivation study |
Why does behavior start?
Once begun why does behavior sustained over time?
Why is behavior directed toward some goals and not others?
Why does behavior change its direction?
Why does behavior stop? |
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What is the relationship between motivation and emotion |
Emotions are one type of motive -just like needs, cognition and external events Emotions are the expression of the persons ever changing motivations states and personal adaptive status -positive Emotions signal all is well and motives are satisfied -negative emotions signal all is not well and motives are frustrated |
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What are tye five expressions of motivation to measure motivation |
Behavior Engagement Psychophysiology Braun activities Self reports |
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7 behavioral expressions of motivation |
Effort Persistence Latency Choice Probability of response Facial expressions Bodily gestures |
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4 interrelated aspects of engagement |
Behavior Emotion Cognition Agency |
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Brain and physiological activity as motivation expression |
Brain activity Hormonal activity Cardiovascular activity Ocular acid Electrodermal activity Skeletal activity |
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What are 2 midsets |
Cognitive view a person develops of self Fixed -qualities cannot change -helpless orientation Growth -qualities can change and improve -mastery orientation |
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Know |
Motivation and emotion are intervening variables |
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Motivation varies in two ways |
Quantity (how much) Quality (what kind) |
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Awareness and goals |
Motives can originate in subcortical brain such that we are not aware of the orgin of the need, cognition or emtion Cortical brain (goals, self) -explicit motives -conscious motives Subcortical brain (hunger, anger) -implicit motives -unconscious motives |
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Motivation and supportive conditions |
Person's motivation cannot be separated from the social context in which it is embedded Physical and social environments can support or neglect a person's motivations and lead to positive functioning or dysfunction |
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Motivating others |
What Is easy to do is rarely what is effective -Tell people what to do -give reward -give praise -give a choice -punish All easy but do not energize, direct or sustain behavior |
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Whar are core self evaluations (CSE) |
Broad integrative trait indicated by
1) self esteem 2) locus of control 3) generalized self efficacy 4) emoti8nal stability (Low neuroticism)
Explains how much of the overlap of these trait measures, while also predicting many work and applied outcomes better than the individual traits |
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Individuals with high core self evaluations |
Perform better on their jobs
More successful in careers
More satisfied with jobs and lives
Report lower levels of stress and conflict
Cope More effectively with setbacks
Better capitalize on advantages and opportunities |
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Plato |
Appetite aspect of the mind -bodily related appetite and desire Competitive aspect of the mind -socially referenced standards Calculating aspect of the mind -decision making capacities |
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Aristotle |
Nutritive aspect of the mind -impulsive, irrational, animal like Sensitive aspect of the mind -bodily related (pleasure and pain) Rational aspect of the mind -idea related, intellectual, featured the will |
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What does a historical perspective of motocation help us consider |
How the concept came to prominence How it changed and developed How ideas were challenged and replaced How the field reemerged and brought together various disciplines with psychology |
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What are grand theories |
All encompassing theory that seeks to explain the full range of motivated action |
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What are the different grand theories |
Will Instinct Drive (Incentive, arousal, discrepancy) |
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Instinct |
Innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior A fixed unlearned response pattern found in almost all members of a species |
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Fixed action pattern |
Innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a specific environmental condition |
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Ethologists |
Observe how animals use fixed action patterns in adapting to their natural environments |
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Instinct theory |
Charles Darwin biological determinism gave rise to motivational concept of instincts Genetically transmitted (sociobioligists) Appeal was that it could explain where motivation came from in the first place |
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Fall in instinct theory |
Failed because it's underlying explanatory logic was circular (angry cause event, event caused anger) Confuses naming with explaining -good for labeling not explaining |
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Drive theory |
Behavior was motivated to the extent that it served the needs of the organism and restored a biological homeostasis Appeal was that high and low motivation could be predicted and even manipulated |
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Drive theory elements |
Need is the result of a drive
Need -a biological state in which the organism lacks something essential for survival
Drive -state of tension that motivates the organism to return to a state of homeostasis
(Motivation could be predicted from antecedent conditions) |
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Fundamental assumptions of Clark Hulls drive theory |
Drive emerged from the disturbance of bodily needs
Drive had a general energizing effect on behavior
Drive reduction was reinforcing and produced learning |
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Hulls drive (reduction) theory |
Motivation could be predicted from antecedent conditions before it occurred When learning occurred and habit was reinforced drive reduction happened |
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Down fall of drive theory |
A rat deprived of food will learn a new response even if it is given only a nonnitritive, saccharine-sweetened substance after performing new response |
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Incentive theory |
Environmental factors motivates our behaviors (Intrinsic motivation is more stable and lasting) |
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Extrinsic vs Intrinsic motivation |
Extrinsic -engaging in activities/ behaviors that either reduce biological needs or helps us to obtain incentives/ external rewards
Intrinsic -engaging in acitvies/ behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or acitvies fufill our beliefs/expectations |
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Biological and social needs |
Biological -physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well being
Social -needs that acquired through learning and experience |
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Needs hierarchy theory |
Maslow
-5 arranged needs
-Satisfaction progression process
-people who experience self actualization desire more rather than less of this need |
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5 hierarchy needs |
Top to bottom
Self actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological |
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4 elements of frueds drive theory |
Source -bodily deficit occurs
Impetus -intensity of deficit growth and turns conscious as a psychological discomfort which is anxiety
Object -seeking out a satisfactory environmental object to reduce anxiety and satisfy the deficit
Aim -if object satisfies anxiety quiets for a time period |
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Downfall of drive theory |
Limited scope and led to the disillusionment with grand theories in general |
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Will theory |
Ancient phiolosophers understood motivation in two themes 1) mechanical, impulsive, motivationally passive, biological and reactive (the body) 2) immaterial, rational, motivationally active, purposive (the will) |
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Down fall of will theory |
Turned out to be a dead end that explained very little and actually raised more questions |
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Three historical events that explain why motivation left behind grand theories |
1) motivation study rejected its commitment to a naturally passive view of human nature and adopted a naturally active portrayal
2) turned decidedly cognitive and somewhat humanistic (cogntive revolution)
3) focused in applied socially relevant problems and applications |
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Mini theories limit their attention unlike grand theories to |
A Motivational phenomenon
Particular circumstances that affect motivation
Groups of people
Theoretical questions |
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Goal setting theories |
Locke and Latham
Suggested that humans can motivate themselves by setting future goals
Specific, difficult goals lead to better performance than specific easy goals, vague goals (do my best) or no goals
Without goals we have no direction or impetus to achieve
Goals arouse effort, give rise to persistence, provide directions and motivate strategy development
Should be difficult but attainable |
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Goal setting theory believed |
Goals should be difficult and specific and effect behavior in 4 ways
1) they direct attention 2) the mobilize effort to the task 3) they encourage persistence 4) they facilitate the development of strategies |
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According to goal setting theories humans are inclined to persist behavior when... |
They have rewarded intermittently
They are making progress towards a goal
They are making no progress towards a goal but have hope of attaining a goal |
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For goals to be effective they should be SMART |
Specific Measurable Attainable Results oriented Time bound |
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Effectiveness of assigned goals (goal setting theory) |
Assigning goals to individuals generally leads to the same level of commitment and performance as letting individuals participate in setting their own goals
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Factors that explain the effectiveness of assigned goals |
1) typically assigned by people with legitimate authority
2) authority assigning goals implies they have confidence that the subordinate can reach the goal and then affects subordinates self confidence
3) assigned goals of difficult pose a challenge to people which motvaites them to improve skills and prove competence
4) help to define the standards people use to attain self satisfaction with their performance |
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Proximal goals vs distal goals |
Proximal -relate to immediate future
Distal -aspirations, long term goals, sustain motivation, keep us on course |
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Advantages of goal setting |
When we guide ourselves with goals we tend to focus out efforts in a consistent direction Increases our changes for success Goals serve as self motivators and energizers |
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Kahnemans cogntive system of decisions and goals |
Intuition (system 1) - fast, parallel, automatic, effortless, associative, slow learning, emotional - usally wrong Reasoning (system 2) -slow, serial, controlled, effortful, rule governed, flexible, neutral -must be learned and leads to right answer given time Goals Based on the notion that people are reactions |
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System 1 and system 2 interaction |
System 2 monitors system 1 it does not replace it (usally let system 1 take over) Should system 1 fail to create intention system 2 can generate a judgment System 1 would create an intention that would then 1) endored by system 2 2) adjusted by including relevant features by system 2 3) corrected for bias by system 2 or rejected as violating some rule and blocked from expression by system 2 |
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Conformation bias |
People often seek information that confirms rather than dicinfirms their original hypothesis Confirmation biases is hypothesis testing |
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Availability heuristics |
Tendency for people to make judgments of frequency on basis of hoe easily example come to mind Works when frequency correlated with ease of coming up with example But sometimes frequency not correlated with ease of coming up with examples |
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Conjunction fallacy |
When two events happen seperately or together, the conjunction (where they overlap) cannot be more likely than the likelihood of either of the two individual events People forget this and ascribe a higher likelihood to combination of events erroneously associating quantity of events with quantity of probability |
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Represnrtativness heuristic |
Mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes |
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Typical development of a scientific discipline |
Preparadigmatic -budding science emerges (debates) Paradigmatic -factionalism gives way to a shared consensus about what constitutes the disciples methods (called a paradgim) Crisis and revolution -anomaly emerges that connot be explained New paradigm -new way of thinking that brings disciple changing process |
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History of emotion research |
Know important people |
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Postvie incentive perspective |
We are drawn to eat by the anticipated pleasure of eating
We have evolved to crave food
Accounts for the impact of external factors on eating
Mutiple factors interact to determine the positive incentive value of eating |
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Items involved in the positive incentive theory |
Species specific preferences and aversions
Learned preferences and aversions -conditioning -deficiency selection (sodium salt preference)
Timing factors -social influence, anticipatory insulin release, conditioning |
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Some specific incentives in poistive incetive theory |
Appetizer effect -anticipation raised hunger
Social influence -group eating suppresses satiety
Cafeteria effect -variety of good tasting foods increases consumption and compensates for sensory specific satiety |
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Postive incentive model if explaining obesity |
The postive rienforcers for eating have important consequences for weight maintenence -people learn to regulate their eating Humans living in a food replete environment never experience an energy deficit |
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Power of incentives varies with |
Personal pleasure in eating
Social context
Biological factors |
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Things that explain variability in obesity |
Food abundance Availability Variety advertising programs |
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Pinel (2000) |
Because the scarcity and unpredictability of food humans evolved to eat to their physiological limits when food was avaible so excess energy can be stored for future food shortages
Discrepancy between environment in which the hunger and eating system evolved the the food replete environments in which people now live had led to current problem of over consumption |
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Fat storage in humans |
Lean humans store enough energy in far reserves to sustain their basal metabolic rate for a month Average is less and 2 month Obese is more than a year |
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Evolutionary interpretation |
Humans were hunter gathers evolving I'm an ecology of scarcity where famine was a constant threat Natural selection favored individuals who could best survive famine -had a vigorous defense of body weight in the face of caloric deprivation Would be prone to anabolism (calorie conserving metabolic shift) -slowed metabolism When food availbe they would be prone to gorge Dieting is then percisely the threat that we evolved to combat |
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Social and economic consequences of overweight in adolescence and young adulthood |
Women -completed few years of school -less likely to be married -lower household incomes -high rates of household poverty Men -less likely married No evidence of an affect on self esteem |
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Ghrelin |
Hunger hormone Ghrelin levels increase in response to diet induced weight loss so it may play a part in the adaptive response that limits the amount of weight loss by dieting Levels are abnormally low after gastric bypass rasing the possibility that this operation reduces weight in part by surpredding ghrelin production Ghrelin antagonistis may someday be considered in treatment for obesity |
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Processes involved in sex |
Physiological regulation Facial metrics Sexual scripts Sexual orientation Evolutionary basis of sexual motivation |
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Alternative sex response cycle (women's sexual motivation) |
Intimacy needs Sexual stimuli Sexual arousal Sexual desire to continue Enhanced intimacy |
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Facial metric parameters |
Study of peopled facial expression were so important because it showed that emotions were cross culturally universal and genetically based Beauty standards may vary between the cultures but different ethnic groups seem to share a common attractiveness standard based upon biological rules |
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Neonate features that are positively correlated with attractiveness |
Large eyes, small nose and small chin |
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Maturity features of |
Prominent cheekbones and narrow cheeks |
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Expressive features of |
High eyebrows Large pupils Large smile |
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Men fetures correlated to attractiveness |
Sexual maturity features |
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Parental investment theory for men |
Biological reality - reproduction involves minimal investment of time energy or risk risk risk Evolutionary significance -maxumize reproductive success by seeking more sexual partners with high reproductive potential Behavioral outcome -more intersrt in uncommitted sex, greater number of sex partners and look for youth and attractiveness |
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Parental investment strategy theory in women |
Biological relatity -reproduction involves substantial investment of time energy and risk Evolutionary significance -maximize success by seeking partners willing to invest material resources in offspring Behavioral outcomes -less interest in uncommitted sex, smaller number of partners, looks for income status and ambition in partners |
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Does scarcity influence judgments of physical attractiveness |
Men proffered lighter than average mates than women
When money was made salient men without money preferred heavier women then men with money
Money possession djd not affect women's preference
Nor did mens when money was salient |
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Does scarcity influence judgments of physical attractiveness hunger |
Hungry men proffered heavier women Men but not women use hunger cues when stating preference for potention partners Satiety cues did not affect female judgmenta |
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3 reasons fail at self regulation |
1) people routinely underestimate how powerful a motivational force biological urges can be when they are not currently expediting them
2) people lack standards or they have inconsistent conflicting unrealistic or inappropriate standards
3) people faule to monitor what theu are doing as they become distracted preoccupied overwhelmed or intoxicated |
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Hypothalamus and hunger |
ventromedial hypothalamus -when you are full -lesions results in overeating
Lateral hypothalamu -when to eat -leasions cause decreased eating
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