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124 Cards in this Set
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Motivation from incentive |
People do not inherently want to engage in behaviors required to receive these incentives instead the motivation comes from something fully separate from the activity, the incentive
When attractive incentives are at stake people do what they need to do get the payoff
When aversive incentives are at stake people do what they need to do to rid themselves of the irritants |
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Every environment tells us 2 things |
It discriminates between desirable and undesirable behaviors
It rewards us in one way or another for performing those desired behaviors and punishes us for undesirabled ones |
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We follow hedonistic tendencies |
Approach pleasure and avoide pain
Engage in actions that produce reward and prevent punishment |
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What is Extrinsic motivation |
Motivation that arises from environmental incentives and consequences Environmentally created reason to engage in an action
These consequences are seperate from the activity itself
-the incentives and consequences create a sence of wanting to engage in those contingent behaviors that produce the sought after consequences |
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What is operant conditioning |
Process by which a person learns how to operate effectively in the environment
Operate effectively means learning to engage in behaviors that produce attractive consequences and learning not to engage in behaviors that produce aversive consequences |
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Baldwin and Baldwin three term model of motivated action |
S: R ---> C
S = situational cue (incentive) R = behavioral response C = consequence
A situational cue sets the occasion for the behavior response (not causes)
The behavior response causes a consequence to happen |
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What is an incentive |
Is an environmental event that attracts or repels a person toward or away from taking a course of action
Incentives always precede behavior
Give the expectation that attractive or unattractive consequences are coming |
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Incentive value |
Incentive value of an event is learned through experience
This learning shapes future goal directed behavior -postive incentives cue approach -negative incentives cue avoidance |
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How do incentives and consequences differ |
1) when they happen
-Incentives happen before behavior -consquences follow behavior
2) how it motivates behavior
-incentives attract to repel the initiation of behavior -consequences increase or decrease the persistence of behavior |
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Theoretical definition of reinforcers |
Must be defined in a way that is independent from its effects on behavior
-if define it on terms of effects on behavior the defintion becomes circular |
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How to eliminate circular defintion of reinforcer |
Need to select an extrinsic event never used before on a particular person
And know priori whether it will or will not increase the sought out behavior |
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6 ways that have explained why reinforcers increase behavior |
1) decreases drive 2) decreases arousal 3) increases arousal 4) is attractive to the person 5) it feels good 6) makes possible to do something fun |
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Two things about the nature of reinforcers that must be considered |
1) reinforcers vary in their quality
2) Immediacy of when reinforcer is delivered partly determines its effectiveness (right after better?) |
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Two types of consequences |
Rienforcers
Punishers |
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What are the two kinds of rienforcers |
Postive
Negative |
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What are postive reinforcers |
An environmental stimulus that increases the future probability of the desired behavior |
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What are rewards |
Is any offering from one person given to another in exchange for their service or achievement |
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What is the distinction between postive reinforcers and rewards |
All postive reinforcers are rewards
Not all rewards function as psotive reinforcers (not all rewards increase behavior) |
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Extrinsic rewards and postive emotions |
Behavior energizing rewards trigger dopamine to signal possible personal gain or reward
These psotive reinforcers or rewards that increase dopamine generate positive feelings
Rewards cause postive emotions and reward directed Behavior beacue it signals the opportunity for personal gain |
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When do rewards work best |
Work when they signal an unexpected and imminent personal gain
-when events take an unexpected turn for the best dopamine release and behavioral approach happen as the brain latches onto the environment signal of the unexpected gain |
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Negative reinforcers |
Environmental stimulus that when removed increases the future probability of the desired behavior
They are aversive, irritating stimuli Removed Increase behavior |
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Negative reinforces motivation of escape and avoidance behaviors |
Escape removes the person from an aversive stimulus
Avoidance presents the aversive stimulus from happening in the first place |
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What are punishers |
Environmental stimulus that when presented decreases the future probability of undesired behavior -recive it and less likely to do again |
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How are negative reinforcers and punishers different |
Punishers decrease undesirable behavior
Negative reinforcers increase (escape and advoidance) behaviors |
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What are response costs |
A type of punisher
Suppresses behavior by imposing the cost of losing some attractive resource if one engages in undesirable behavior |
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Do punishers work |
Punishment is ineffective motivational strategy
Causes side effects including negative emotions, impaired relationships, negative modeling |
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Corporal punishment |
Gershoff
Little merit as an motivational strategy -causes temporary compliance but leads to many undesirable long term consequences -this is true for all punishers |
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What are some consequences of corporal punishment |
Children -aggression -antisocial behavior -poor mental health -poor moral internalization -impaired child parent relations
Adults -aggression -poor mental health -alcoholism -abusive behavior -criminal behavior |
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If punishment doesn't work what does |
Prevention
Works best when in context of a supportive, nurturing, high quality relationship
Punishers don't work but do rewards? -intrinsic motivation |
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What is intrinsic motivation |
Is the desire to seek out novelty and challenge, to explore and investigate and to stretch and extend our capacities Inherent desire to engage ones interest and to exercise and develop one's capacities
Is the growth facilitating motivation |
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What are the 3 psychological needs |
Autonomy Competence Relatedness |
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Intrinsic motivation and psychological needs |
When psychological needs are met they give rise to the experience of intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is the expression if physiological need satisfaction |
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Extrinsic motivation effect on intrinsic motivation |
Presenting an extrinsic reward to engage in an intrinsically interesting activity undermines future intrinsic motivation
This effect is called a hidden cost of reward |
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Extrinsic rewards and their hidden costs |
Extrinsic rewards can have psotive effects but they also always come with hidden costs
-undermining intrinsic motivation
-interfering with learning (shift from mastering to getting the reward)
-autonomous self regulation (after always getting rewards, people find it hard to regulate their behavior when there is no reward) |
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Unexpected rewards |
Those who get no external reward and those that recive an unexpected reward show no decline in intrinsic motivation
This shows that the extrusntic motivation (not the reward) causes a decreased interest and intrinsic motivation |
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Two factors that explain which types of rewards decrease intrinsic motivation |
Expectancy -whether a person expects there will be a reward
Tangibility -physical rewards decrease intrinsic motivation while verbal rewards do not |
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Extrinsic motivation and rewards in uninteresting tasks |
If there is little intrinsic motivation then intrinsic motivation is not likely to be put at risk by offering a reward
Negative impact of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation is limited to interesting activities |
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Why u should not use extrinsic motivators even for intrinsically uninteresting endeavors |
1) extrinsic is undermines performance and learning
2) rewards distracts attention away from asking hard question of why another person is being asked to do the task in the frist place
3) better ways to encourage participation
4) still undermine individuals long term capacity for autonomous self regulation |
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What does cogntive evolution theory state |
Provides a way for predicting the effects that any extrinsic even will have on motivation That all external events have both a controlling aspect and a competence informing aspect
Presumes people have psychological needs for autonomy and competence
-controlling aspect affects people's need for autonomy -informational aspect affects persons need got competence |
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What are the 3 propostuins that cogntive evaluation theory is made of |
1) external events that promote an internal perceived locus of causality promote autonomy and intrinsic motivation
External events that promote an external perceived locus of causality decrease autonomy and promote extrinsic motivation |
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What are the 3 propostuins that cogntive evaluation theory is made of |
External events increase perceived competence, promote intrinsic motivation
External events that decrease perceived competence undermine intrinsic motivation
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What are the 3 propostuins that cogntive evaluation theory is made of |
The relative salience of whether an event is mostly controlling or mostly informational determines its effects on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation |
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Know |
The purpose behind the reward is more important than the reward itself |
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Three types of motivation |
Amotivatiom (no autonomy) Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation (high autonomy)
Can be put on a continuum of autonomy or self determination (self determination theory)
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What is amotivatiom |
Without motivation
A person is not intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated
Person turns passive ineffective (overwhelmed) and lacks purpose
Stems from lack of psychological needs |
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What are the 4 kinds of extrinsic motivation |
External regulation ( no autonomous) Introjected regulation (slightly autonomou) Identified regulation (highly) Integrated regulation (full autonomous) |
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What is external regulation |
Prototype of non self determined extrinsic motivation
Person who is externally regulated
The presence and absence of extrinsic motivators regulates the rise and fall of motivation |
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Introjected regulation |
Involves taking in but not truly accepting or self endoring other peoples demands to think, feel, or behave in a particular manner
Being motivated out of guilt and tyranny of the should
Interjnalization is kept at arms length |
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Identified regulation |
Represents mostly internalized and autonomous extrinsic motivation
Person voluntarily accepts the mertis or behavior because that way of thinking is seen as personally important or useful
Don't enjoy doing these things buy do them cause they see the value in them |
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Intergrated regulation |
Most autonomously endorsed type of extrinsic motivation
Intergration where a person fully transform previously defined valuse and behaviors into self |
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What is internalization |
The process through which an individual transforms a formerly externally prescribed rule, behavior into an internally endored one
Voluntary adopts the ripes of others
Is an intentional process as we seek opportunities |
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What is integration |
The further transformation of these internalized values into the person's sense of self |
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How to motivate others in an uninteresting activity |
Explanatory rationales -a verbal explanation as to why putting effort into an uninteresting event might be useful and important -can spark valuing
Interest enchanting strategies -setting goals, fantasy context, adding extra scoure (friend) |
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Grey's behavioral inhibition system |
Model for emotional experience and behavior based on two major systems that mediate cognition and emotion
1) behavioral inhibition system (BIS) 2) behavioral approach system (BAS)
Reinforcing agents involved in states of arousal are paired with programs of responsive motor behavior |
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When is BIS activated |
Is activated by anxiety and predictions are made based on memories of pervious experience
Memory based predictions are then compared with current events
Incongruence between prediction and reality results in behavioral inhibition and increased physical arousal and attention as individual searches for more information |
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What is BIS |
Is the breaking system
It activates inhibitory behaviors in response to signals of punishment, non reward, novel stimuli and innate fear stimuli (Activated by Unconditional and conditional stimuli)
Activation automatically focuses out attention on these cue
Effected by serotonin |
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Anti-anxiety drugs effect on BIS |
They deactivate BIS and make people less likely to stop, look, and listen
-anxiety an anticipatory to the possibility of an aversive outcome
-to much vigilance means we fail to attend to goal directed activities |
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BAS |
Activates approach behaviors in response to cues for reward or non punishment
May be linked yo motor programming system
Dopamine plays an essential role
The behavior engine
Associated with appropriate traits of extraversion (impulsiviety) |
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When is anxiety good |
Is a necessity for motivation and achievement
A desirable trait and product of evolution
Is a singal for danger and preparation for action
Operates outside conscious awareness |
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Self disciple outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance (Duckworth and Seligman) |
Self disciple leads to higher final GPA than does a high IQ
Final GPA varied more steeply as a function of self disciple than as a function of IQ (Generically drermined)
They are relatively stable over time (strong correlation between measures of IQ) |
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Underahciement in youth |
Is thought to be due to teachers, textbooks, large classes
But another reason is their failure to exercise self discipline -can br taught but takes time and work |
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Self control |
Self control is relatively stable over time and situations -people with high self control are better at controlling their impulses
Self control is aimed more at inhibiting undesirable behaviors than promoting desirable behavior
Average effect size estimates for undesired behaviors were no different from estimates for desired behaviors |
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Self control and wide range of behavior (Ridder, etc) |
Self control is positively correlated with
-school and work -eating and weight -interpersonal functioning -well being and adjustment |
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Low self control is positively correlated with |
Addictive behavior Deviant behavior Planning and decision making |
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What is type 1 and type 2 punishment |
Type 1 -add somthing unpleasant
Type 2 -take away some pleasant |
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For punishment to decrease frequency of an undesirable behavior it must |
Be immediate Be contingent upon behavior Be intense Consistently applied Impersonal Information |
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Spanking and child outcomes |
Gershoff and Kaylor
Causes lots of negative effects -low moral internalization -child aggression -antisocial behavior -externalizng behavior problems -internalizing behavior problems -mental health probmes -negative parent and child relationships
Does not cause -child or adult alcohol or substance abuse
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Examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on motivation |
Deci and Ryan |
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Core self evaluation triats (Judge and Bono) |
Self esteem Generalized self efficacy Internal locus of control Emotional stability
All 4 are positively correlated with job satisfaction and job performance |
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Relationship of core self evaluations to goal setting, motivation and performance |
Erez and Judge Core evolution and task performance positivity correlated Goal setting, goal commitment, activity level, sales volume, rated performance are positively correlated to core evaluations (high) |
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Core self evaluations and job and life satisfaction |
Judge, Bono, Erez and Locke Core self evaluations are positively related to goal self concordance -individuals with psotive self regard are more likely to pursue goals for intrinsic and identified reasons Goal self concordance was related to satisfaction |
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Job performance and self esteem |
Weak postive correlations between job performance and self esteem Core self evaluations are a better predictor for job performance and job satisfaction |
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Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model |
Desired work outcomes comprise of 2 classes of variables
1) the psychological states of employees that must be present for internally motivated work behavior to develop 2) the characterrics of jobs that can create these psychological states are based on certain aspects |
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Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model 3 critical psychological states |
1) high internal work motivation 2) high growth satisfaction 3) high grneral job satisfaction |
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Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model characteristics of jobs are |
1) skill variety 2) task identity 3) task significance 4) autonomy 5) feedback |
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Personality and job satisfaction The mediating role of job characteristics |
Judge Bono and Locke
Core self evaluations correlate with job complexity and then job satisfaction
Core self evaluation correlates to job satisfaction |
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Intresent and enjoyment with psychological needs |
Interest is the emotion that signals that our psychological needs have been involved by an acitivity
Enjoyment is the emotion that signals our psychological needs have been satisfied by the activity |
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What are our 3 psychological needs |
Autonomy Competence Relatedness |
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Psychological needs and environments |
When environments are supportive and provided what is needed the organism thrives
When environments are hostile and withhold what is needed the organism suffers
Environments change constantly so organisms need flexibility to adjust (organisms need to grow) |
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What are the telltale signs of the presence of a psychological need |
1) providing particular nutriments produce growth, thriving and well being
2) withholding the same nutriments produce decay, injury and ill being |
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What is a psychosocial need |
Inherent source of motivation thar generates the desire to interact with the environment so as to advance personal growth, social development and well being |
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Psychological need satisfaction behifits |
Engagement Personal growth Intrinsic motivation Internalization Health Well being |
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Two assumptions of organsimic approach |
People are inherently active -always active exchange with their environment
People need support, rather than hostile environments -need satisfaction leads to growth and adaptive functioning -need frustration leads to defense and maladaptive functioning |
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What is engagement |
Refers to how actively involved the person is in the activity at hand
Need satisfaction increased effort, enthusiasm and planning
If something happens during task involvement to induce psychological need frustration the engagement will turn apathy and disengagement |
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Personal growth |
Refers to how agentic, mature, responsible, authentic the person is
Need satisfaction increases personal development
Personal regression is the opposite |
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Intrinsic motivation |
Is spontaneous activity done merely got the enjoyment of the activity
Need satisfaction increases how interesting and hoe enjoyable the task is
It is fun and enjoyable because it meets autonomy, competent and relatedness |
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Internalization |
Taking the the beliefs, behaviors from other people such that they are transformed into volitional self regulations of one's own
Need satisfaction increases volitational engagement in uninteresting tasks |
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Health |
The functional efficiency of the mind and body and to the absence of illness
Need satisfaction increases a health promoting lifestyle
People are more likely to initiate a health promoting lifestyle when their psychological needs are met |
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Well being |
Refers to psotive mental health and more specifically to the presence of postive emotionally, sense of purpose, life satisfaction
Need satisfaction increases postive emotiona sn sense of purpose
Well needs are met people are happier, more interested and more enthusiastic |
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Need frustration |
Needs can be frustrated by thwartive relationships and social contexts |
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Need frustration makes 2 key points |
1) relationships and social contexts are typically not either supportive or thwartive but a bit of both
2) experiences of need satisfaction do a good job of predicting and explaining various indicators of people's adaptive functioning and well being -need frustration predicts and explains maladaptive functioning |
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What is autonomy |
Is the psychological need to experience self direction and personal endorsement in the initiation and regulation of one's behavior
Hallmarks of autonomy are volitional action and wholehearted self endorsement of that action
Behavior is autonomous when our interest, preference and wants guide our decision making to engage or not engage in activity
Personal endorsement -Inner endorsement of one's behavior |
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Two kinds of motivating styles (autonomy) |
Autonomy supportive -when environmental influences tap into nurture and satisfy need for autonomy -defined by interpersonal tone of understanding
Controlling -when environmental influences neglect persons need for autonomy -defined by an interpersonal tone of pressure |
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Interpersonal behaviors associated with autonomy support |
Take others perspective -controlling style prioritizes only their point of view
Nurture psychological need satisfaction -supporting autonomy involves satisfying the other needs as well -create the conditions in which people can motivate themselves
Provide explanatory retionals -a verbal explanation as to why putting in effort is useful
Acknowledge and except expressions of negative affect -listen carefully to these expressions and accept them as valid -a sign of motivation problem that needs to be understood and solved -controlling tone is throwing fuel on the fire
Use invitational language -convy choice, flexibility and volition
Display Patience -calmness one shows as other adjusts -listening and postponing advice until understand |
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Autonomy and choices |
Providing choices is a conundrum because choices sometimes do but sometimes dont motivate others
A choice among prescribed options typically fails to tap into and involve the need for autonomy
When people have a true choice over their actions and when they are offered choices that are meaningful to their lives that they experience autonomy |
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Benefits of autonomy support |
Nurtures
Autonomy Competence Relatedness Intrinsic motivation Curiosity Internalized values |
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What is competence |
The psychological need go be effective in one interactions with the environment and it reflects the desire to stretch and extend one capacities and skills and seek out and master optimal challenges and personal growth opportunities Need to be effective in interactions with the environment
Hallmarks are effectance, mastery, making progress |
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Optimal challenges |
Experience the greatest pleasure following success in thr contect of optimal (moderate) challenge |
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Flow (csikszentmihalyi) |
The essence of enjoyment can be traced to the experience of flow
Is the state of concentration that involves a holistic absorption and deep involvement in an activity -happens when a person uses skills to rise up to some challenge
We repeat the activity in hope to experience it again
Happens when both skills and challenge are moderately high |
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Flow model |
When challenge overwhelmes skill leads to worry -over challenging threatens competence
When challenge matches skills concentration, involvement and enjoyment rise. Leads to flow (the optimal experience)
When skill overwhelms challenge it leads to little concentration, involvement and boredom
If both challenge and skill are low it leads to not caring or apathy -Flow is not just balancing the two |
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Flow enhances performance |
People seek out optimal challenge to experience flow which leads further development of skill |
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Three elements of a highly structured learning environment for competence and flow |
Clear expectations Guidance -helping other adjust behavior in ways that they can can meet those expectations Feedback -providing future pathways to more effective functioning
(Even more important when people are frist learning a skill when competence is fragile) |
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Failure tolerance |
People who pursue optimal challenges are just as likely to experience failure as success
When social context reacts harshly to failure we are more likely to avoid challenges then seek them out
Seek optimal challenges when we are in environments that are autonomy supportive and failure tolerant |
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We learn more from failure than success beacue it produces unique opportunitiesthrough three unique constructive features |
1) failure urgaes people to identify its causes
2) failure prompts people to revise and update the quality of their coping strategies
3) failure prompts people to recognize their need for advice and instruction |
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What is relatedness |
The psychological need to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with other people
Reflects the desire to be emotionally connected to and interpersonally involved in warm relationships
People are essentially looking for the opportunity to relate the self to another person in an authentic, caring, reciprocal and meaningful way |
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Social interaction |
Is the primary condition that involved the relatedness need
It is only social interactions that promise the possibility of warm, care, mutual concern that vitalize relatedness |
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Relationship motivation theory (Deci and Ryan) |
States the active ingredients that produce relatedness are that the other person understands me and offered acceptance and support of the self
Mechanism most responsible for deep relatedness satisfaction is partner responsiveness (full attention, understanding and support) |
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Three characteristics of partner responsiveness |
Understanding -communicates authenticity
Validation -communicates liking and acceptance
Caring -communicates a concern of well being |
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What is need for the satisfaction of relatedness |
The creation of social bond between self an another |
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Social bond need to be characterized by the perceptions that the other person |
1) cares about my welfare
2) likes me |
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What is relatedness support |
When a relationship tap into, nature and satisfy a person's need for relatedness
The interpersonal tone that defines relatness is responsiveness |
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Difference between communal and exchange relationships |
Exchange relationships -between acquaintances
Communal relationships -between people who care about the welfare of the other -satisfy relatedness -no obligation exists (no giving or receive benefits) |
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Benefits of relatedness |
Same as other psycholgocial need satisfaction
Engagement Development growth Health Well being
Also affecte vasopressin and oxytocin systems which regulate social bonding, stress and emotional reactivity
Makes internalization happen willingly which also creates postive functioning |
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Connell and Skinner explanation for which conditions people show high and low engagement by tracing origin of engagement to the 3 needs |
Argue that
1) autonomy support enhances engagement because it satisfies need for autonomy
2) structure enhances engagement because it satisfies competence
3) involvement enhances engagement because it satisfies the need for relatedness |
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When do we have a good day |
When all psychosocial needs are net |
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Vitality |
Have good day through subjective vitality
Which is the energy that is available to the self
Psychological need satisfaction offer the Psychological nutriments we need to feel vital
Vitality shoed our needs are met |
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Ryan and Deci self determination theory |
A basic need is an energizing state that if satisfied conduces toward health and well being but if not satisfied it contributes to I'll being
The 3 needs must be satisfied across lifespan for the individual to experience an ongoing sense of integrity and well being
When needs are satisfied internal motivation is increased |
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Three subjective qualities within the experience of autonomy |
Internal locus of causality -understanding of the causal source of their motivated actions
Volition (feeling free) -a heartfelt and unpredicted willingness to engage in activity
Perceived choice over actions -subjective experience that one may decided to act or not act |
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Long term effects of control relevant intervention on institutionalized age |
(Rodin and Langer)
Increasing the control felt by nursing home residents resulted in better health and lower mortality rates compared to those in comparison condition
Control must be long lasting -temporary control had more deaths than lasting control
-group was told that would have responsibility of caring for themselves and decideding how to spend time
-compassion group was told |
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Schulz and Hanusa |
Temporary increases in perceived control can be more harmful than good
Results in worse health and higher mortality rates compared to those in a comparison condition |
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Importance of Pecived control in other countries |
Relationship between perceived control and health may be stronger for members of western cultures than Asian cultures |
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Csikszentmihalyi discovering flow |
Started with artists (those creating meaning)
Most of his research based on surveying people spontaneously about what the activities they were doing and they way they felt
-standard survey |
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Flow and regulatory compatibility:approach to the flow model of intrinsic motivation |
Keller and bless
Participants in the adaptive playing mode condition reported higher levels of involvement and enjoyment than counterparts in both the boredom and overload condition
Also reached higher performance scores than counterparts
Indicates that there is a causal relationship between the compatibility of skills and task demands and the the level of intrinsic motivation as reflected in the scores on the involvement and enjoyment scale |
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Structure |
Is the amount and clarity of information one person gives to another regarding what to do and how to do it (competence) |
