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185 Cards in this Set
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What implicit motives |
The need is implied or referred from the persons characteristic thought, emotion and behavior Is enduring, non conscious needs that motivate people's behavior toward the attainment of specific social incentives |
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What is the difference between implicit and explicit motives |
Implicit is unconscious -can't create a self report questionnaire to assess these needs Explicit is conscious -can create a self report questionnaire to assess these needs and people's reactions to need relative incentives |
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Three kinds of implicit motives |
Achievement Affiliation Power |
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What are the primary social incentives that activates each implicit motive |
Achievement -doing something well to show personal competence
Affiliation -opportunity to please others and gain their approval -involvement in warm and secure relationship
Power -having impact on others |
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Three sources of motivation in McClellands theory of learned needs (acquired needs theory) |
Need for power Need for affiliation Need for achievement |
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What is the need for achievement in McClellands Acquired needs theory |
The desire to do somthing better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks |
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What is our need for power in McClellands Acquired needs theory |
The desire to control others, to incidence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people |
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Two different distinctions in need for power |
Need for personal power Need for organizational power |
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What is the need for affiliation in McClellands Acquired needs theory |
The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons |
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What is the leadership profile |
Strong need for power
-a capacity to use power to achieve institutional goals rather than personal goals (not personal power but organizational power)
Low need for affiliation
-Pleasing others may get in the way of making hard decisions necessary for the efficient functioning of business |
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The pattern of postive emotion (affect) for people with a strong high need for achievement |
Needs to experience strong interest, enthusiasm, joy, and prides while engaging in a challenging task Feel interest, joy, arousal, excitement and sense of opportunity when given a difficult challenge that offrres immediate feedback about your performance Feel happy when pursuing goals such as winning, diagnosing personal competence, and improving the self that often happens in sports and various domains of risk taking Feel excited and energized by standards of excellence and when evaluating you proformance against personal standards |
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The pattern of psotivite emotion (affect) for people with a strong high need for affiliation |
Needs to experience strong interest, enthusiasm, joy and pride while engaging themselves in a close relationship Feel calmness with warm, postive affect in situations that offer comfort and interpersonal security Feel happy when pursing activities suck ad cuddling or relaxing with close friends Feel a calm, satisfying joy when you are in close contact with others and when forming and maintaining positive personal relationships |
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The pattern of psotive emotion (affect) for people with a strong high need for power |
Needs to experience strong interest, enthusiasm, joy and pride when given an opportunity for social impact Feel strong, sharp arousal spikes that generate a burst of Epinephrine, testosterone, and increased blood pressure and muscle tone Feel haply when pursuing acitvies such as riding a roller coster and making a persuasive speech in front of audience Feel strong and empowered during social influence attempts, when attaining high social status, when in a position of leadership and when dominating and directing others |
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How do implicit motives form |
If a task produces positive emotions then the social incentive of being challenged becomes associated with positive emotion and an emotion- based preference for challenging situations develops
Is the task produces negative emotions no emotion based preference for challenging situations develops
Overtime challenging situations and positive emotions go hand in hand and the anticipation of positive emotion in the face of a challenging task is the implicit motive for achievement |
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Implicit motives are mostly reactive |
They are dormant within us until we encounter a potentially need satisfying incentive that activates a particular pattern of emotionally
-encountering an optical challenge to personal competence may pill achievement related emotions and strivings out of people who have an implicit motive for achievement |
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We also learn to anticipate the emergence of social incentives |
People learn that particular occupations, organizations, events are primary opportunities for doing well and demonstrating competence, participating in warm relationships, or having impact on others
People then gravitate toward these environments that are capable of activating need- congenial emotions that activate and satisfy their implicit motives |
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What becomes the fundamental question |
In what situations do you feel strong, fulfilled and satisfied? What makes you happy?
If you know these questions then you have good insight into the makeup of you own implicit motivation profile
Because implicit motives are non conscious other people tend to not know what makes them happy
Observing types of situations in which people show strong postive emotions you can have as much insight into their implicit motives as they do. |
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What are the two emotional reactions people expereinces from encountering a standard of excellence |
Hope for success -anticipates postive goal attainment and postive emotions like hope, pride, enthusiasm and excitement
Fear of failure -anticipates negative goal attainment and negative emotions like fear, anxiety, shame and embarrassment |
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Two types of approaches that come from encountering a standard of excellence |
Active approach -postive goal anticipation and psotive emotions generate approach behaviors -a desire to seek out and master the standard of excellence -shows strong activity engagement and joy from improvement
Passive approach -negative goal anticipation and negative emotions generate avoidance behaviors -desire to protect the self from being embarrassed and devalued -seeks relief from she and embarrassment |
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What is the need for achievement |
Desire to do well relative to a standard of excellence |
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What is a standard of excellence |
Any change to a person's sense of competence that ends with an objective outcome of success or failure |
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High need achiever vs low need achiever |
Approach oriented emotions vs avoidance oriented emotions Differences in choice, latency, effort, persistence and the willingness to take personal responsibility for successes and failures |
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What are the origins for need for achievement |
Socialization influences (parents) Developmental influences |
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Need for achievement develops when parents provide the following |
Independence training High performance aspirations Realistic and explicit standards of excellence High ability self concepts Psotive valuing of achievement related pursuits Wide scope of experiences like traveling Exposure to children's readings rich in achirmvent imagery |
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Need for achievement develops from developmental influences |
Achievement related beliefs, values and emotions all show predictable developmental patterns Pride following success experiences fuels high achievement striving Shame following failure experiences fuels low achievement striving |
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Atkinson's model of tendency to achieve |
Tendency to achieve (Ta) Tendency to approach (Ts) Tendency to avoid (Taf)
Ta = Ts - Taf Ta = (Ms × Ps × Is) - (Maf × Pf × If)
Ms : motive to success Ps : prercived probability of success Is : incentive value of success
Maf : motive to avoid failure Pf : perceived probability of failure (1- ps) If : negative incentive value of failure (1-Pf) |
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Dynamics of action model include |
Instigation (Ts) -approach tendencies
Inhibition (Taf) -avoidance tendencies
Consummation -performing an activity brings out its own cessation
All make up our stream of ongoing behavior |
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Stream of ongoing behavior for people high and low in motive to successed (Ms) vs motive to avoid failure (Maf) |
Latency to begin an achievement depends on motive strength (Ms vs Maf) Persistence on an achievement task depends on motive strength (Ms vs Maf) Switching to a nonachievment task happens with rising consumption |
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Three conditions that involve and satisfy the need for achiemvent |
Moderately difficult tasks Competition Entrepreneurship |
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Duality of affiliation |
Affiliation need -deficiency oriented motive Intimacy need -growth oriented motive |
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The conditions that activate affiliation needs and intimacy needs |
??????? |
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What is atkinson's value model of achiemvent behavior |
Achievement striving and behavior as an inherent struggle of approach vs avoidance
Achiemvent motivation exists as a balance between the emotions underlying the tendency to approach vs the emotions underlying the tendency to avoid failure
When Ts is greater than Taf people approach the opportunity
When Taf is greater than Ts the person hesitates and avoides the opportunity |
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4 variables of aktinsons theory |
Achievement behaviour and its three prideictos
need for achiemvnet (Ms)
probability of success (Ps)
incentive for success (Is) (1 -Ps) -incentive value during difficult task is high and low during easy tasks |
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Two general principles that underline aktinsons theory |
Tendency to achieve is highest when tendency to approach is greater than tendency to avoid
Tendency to achieve is highest when possibility of success Is equal to 0.5 and lowest when possibility of success Is around 0.9 or 0.1 |
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What are future avhirvement orientations |
Refers to am individuals psychological distance from a long term achievement goal
Degree to which the individual anticipates and integrates the future into his or her psychological present
Future goals generate less approach than do immediate goals but can add additional future motivation to present motivation |
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Difference between aktinsons model and dynamics of action model |
Extends on aktinsons episode view to also explain and predict changes in achiemvent striving and behavior over time Aktinsons model goal was to predict what a person will do at a particular moment in time |
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What is dynamics of action model |
Achievement behavior happens within a stream of ongoing behavior |
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Stream of behavior is determined by three forces |
Instigation (similar to Ts) -causes a rise in approach tendencies -amount of motivation to do something
Inhibition ( similar to Taf) -causes a rise in avoidance tendencies -amount of motivation to not do something
Consummation -refers to the fact that performing an activity brings about its own cessation -force decreases the motivation to continue to engage in ongoing behavior -it is the motivation to stop and take a rest |
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4 kinds of streams of behaviour for people high and low in Ms and Maf |
High need for achiemvent - Ms is greater then Maf -high instigation and low inhibition
High conflicted need for achievement - Ms is equal to Maf -high instigation and high inhibition
Low need for achiemvnet - Ms is equal to Maf -low instigation and low inhibition
High fear of failure -Maf is greater than Ms -high inhibition and low intergration |
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High need for achiemvent - Ms is greater then Maf |
Short latency to get started (no procrastination)
Rapidly rising achievement behavior (strong work ethic)
Little consumption
Quick return to achievement after break |
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High conflicted need for achievement - Ms is equal to Maf |
Medium latency to get started (some procrastination)
Moderalty rising achicment behavior (good work ethic)
Moderate consumption
Reasonable return to achievement after break |
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Low need for achiemvnet - Ms is equal to Maf |
Low latency to get started (much procrastination)
Slow rising achievement behavior (Poor work ethic)
Moderate consumption
Slow return to achievement after a break |
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High fear of failure -Maf is greater than Ms |
Very low latency to get started (Lots of procratination)
Almost no rising achievement behavior (No work eithic)
High consumption
No return to achievement after a break |
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Three important messages of dynamic of action model streams of behavior |
Latency to begin an achiemvent task depends on motive strength (Ms vs Maf) Persistence on an achiemvent task depends on motive strength (Ms vs Maf) Switching to a nonacheivnemt task (taking a break) happens with rising consumption |
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Three core conditions that involve and satisfy the need for achiemvent |
Moderately difficult tasks Competition Entrepreneurship |
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Moderately difficult tasks |
High need achievers out perform low need achiverd on moderately difficult tasks High need achievers do not outperform low need achievers on easy of difficult tasks |
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High performance |
Promotes psotive emotions, approach behavior and improved performance in high need achievers Promotes negative emotions, avoidance behaviors and debilitated performance in low need achievers |
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Entrepreneurship |
McClelland found that high need achievers display beahviour patterns of Entrepreneurship
Appeals to them because it requires taking moderate risks and assuming personal responsibility for one's successes and failures |
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Duality of affiliation motivation |
The need for approval (affiliation)and need for intimacy Intimacy motive reflects a concern for the quality of one's social involvement Affiliation interact with others to avoid negative emotions such as rejection and anger (needy) -is the need for approval, acceptance, and security |
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What are the need involving conditions got affiliation need and intimacy need |
Principle condition that involves the need for affiliation is the deprivation from social interaction -expresses itself as a defieciry oriented motive
Conditions that arise the need for intimacy involve interpersonal caring, warmth and love -express itself as a growth oriented motive |
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What are the need satisfying conditions for affiliation and intimacy needs |
Social acceptance, approval and reassurance constitue the need satisfying conditions for people high in the need for affiliation Relatedness with a warm, close, reciprocal, and enduring relationships satisfy those with high need for intimacy |
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Fear and anxiety |
People desire to affiliate for emotional and support and to see how others handle fear and anxiety |
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Establishing interpersonal networks |
People with high need for intimacy spend time interacting with others, join social groups, and establish stable and long lasting relationships Creates stronger relationships where we know more High intimacy individuals pervice this tightening bonds as emotionally satisfying Those with low need intimacy perceive these bonds as stifling and as an entrapment |
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Maintaing interpersonal networks |
People with high need for affiliation (both kinds) strive to maintain relationships |
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What is power Need |
Need for power is a dirrs to make the physical and social world conform to one's personal image or plan People high in the need for power desire to have impact, control, or influence over another person or group -impact allows them to establish power -control allows them to maintain power -influence allows them to expand their power |
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What are the conditions that involve and satisfy the need for power |
Leadership and relationships -individuals prefer others who are in a position to be led Drinking alcohol -when people drink they report feeling stronger and less inhibited by social constraints Aggression -relationship between aggression and power is diluted because sociaoty controls and inhbits peoples acts of overt aggression-impulses rather than acual acts -impulses rather than acual acts Influential occupations -extracted to occupations such as executives, teachers, psychologists Prestige possession -people amass a collection of power symbols (own gun, convertible) |
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The need for powers affect on goal pursuit |
Power increases approach tendencies
People high in the need for power are more easily acquire the goals they seek -laser like focus
High power and taking action go together |
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The need for power and perspective taking |
The need for power reduces people's perspective taking ability
Leads to a lack of empathy and a tendency to relate to people as a means to an end |
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Leadership motive pattern |
High need for power Low affiliation High self control (inhibition)
Lack of self disciple in a leader can lead followers to perceive that leader as narcissistic or seld aggrandizing |
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What is the traditional leadership movie pattern |
High power Low affiliation High inhibition |
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What is the contemporary compassionate leadership profile |
High power High affiliation High inhibition Leader with High affiliation is likely to motivate followers by communicating concern respect appreciation and support |
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Individual difference in leadership emergence study Ilies, Gerhardt and Huy (2004) |
The strong multiple correlation (.57) of the Big Five traits and intelligence with leadership emergence suggests that whether an individual will emerge as a leader depends to a relatively large extent on the individual’s personal characteristics (traits) Personality factors are found to be stronger predictors than intelligence Agreeablenss is negatively correlated -not as important Big 5 traits -emotional stability, extraverson, openness, agreeablness and conscientiousness |
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Personality and leadership: a Qualitative and Quantitivative review Judge, Bono, Ilies and Gerhardt (2002) |
Neuroticism (-) , extraverson, openness to experience, agreeablness and conscientiousness correlate with leadership
Extraverson was the most consistent coreelate of leadership across study setting and leadership criteria
Agreeablness was not significant correlate |
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Personality and leadership: a Quantitivative review and test of theoretical Propisitions Judge, Corbert, Ilies (2004) |
Intelligence relationship to leadership is neither strong nor trivial (.27) Judge et al. (2002) revealed that both extraversion (.31) and conscientiousness (.28) had stronger average correlations with leadership then intelligence |
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Characteristics of unsuccessful leaders Hogan (1989) |
Lack of training
Cogntvie deficiencies
Personality problems -paranoid/ passive aggressive -high likeability floater -narcissism |
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Characteristics of unsuccessful leaders Hogan (1989) All dysfunctional dispositions of unsuccessful leaders are summarized in terms of three large factors which concern tendencies to.... |
Blow up Show off Conform when under pressure |
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Characteristics of unsuccessful leaders Hogan (1989) Consequences of dysfunctional dispositions in leadership |
Person us unable to learn from past experiences -person repeatedly engages in the same self defeating behavior Dispositions also erode trust -high levels of dysfunctional dispositions are extremly self centered which results with others not trusting them -lack of trust erodes their ability to build a team and get along with others |
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Evaluation of leadership Effectivness Hogan and Hogan (2001) |
Data for ideal evaluations are not often availbe but there are alternatives -self ratings of leadership -business literature defines leadership in terms of people who are in charge
-superiors resting of a mangers performance -peer ratings
-subordinates ratings (best and single way to evaluate a managers performance) |
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Hertzberg two facort theory |
The theory proposes that most factors which contribute to job satisfaction are motivators (achievement, recognition, the satisfaction of the work itself, responsibility and opportunities for advancement and growth) and most factors which contribute to job dissatisfaction are hygiene elements (pay and security, working conditions, interpersonal relatioships, company policy, supervisons). |
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A two process veiw of Facebook use and relatedness need satisfaction Kennon, Abad, Hirsch |
Does Facebook help people meet their relatedness needs Frequent usage paradoxically correlates with more relatedness satisfaction and more relatness dissatisfaction |
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Facebocrastiniation Meier, Reinecke, and Meltzer (2016) |
Low trait self control, habitual Facebook checking, and high enjoyment of Facebook use predict 40% of variance for using Facebook for procrastination
Using Facebook for the irrational delay of important tasks increases students academic stress levels and negative well being effects of Facebook use beyond the academic domain |
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"Spring to action" |
A cogntivie mental event such as a goal or an expectancy functions as (a string to action) a moving force that energizes and directs action in purposive ways Cognition is treated as a motivational force |
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TOTE Model (test- operate-test- exit) |
People have mental representations of the ideal states of their behavior or environmental People are also aware of their present stare of Behavior or environment Mismatch is known as incongruity which is the motivational spring to action For pan of action to remove incongruity |
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TOTE Model steps |
Test means to compare the present to ideal
Mismatch motivates the individual to operate on the environment via a plan of action
After action there is another test
If still incongruity the person continues to operate
If there is a match the person exits the plan |
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Monitonic improvements vs nonmonitonic variants |
Monotonic improvements -each sketch building on preceding sketches Nonmonotonic variants -each sketch represents a blind variation -ab artist cannot determine in advance whether a sketch marks a step forward or a step backwards with respect to the final composition |
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A plan action sequence portrays individuals as |
Detecting present ideal inconsistencies Generating a plan of action to eliminate incongruity Instigating plan regulated behavior Monitoring feedback for any remaining present ideal incongruity |
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Old vs current perception of plans |
Use to view plans of action as fixed, static and mechanical Now see them as adjustable and subject to revision -this portrays humans as active decision makers Any present ideal incongruity does not instigate an automatic mechanical discrepancy motivated action sequence Incongruity gives rise to corrective motivation |
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What is corrective motivation |
It activates a decision making process in which the individual consideres many different possible ways of reducing the incongruity such as Change the plan Change the behavior (increase effort) Withdraw from the plan |
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What is discrepancy |
Synonym of incongruity It is a core motivational construct -it is discrepancy not ideal state that has motivational properties Magnitude of Mismatch between one's present state and ones ideal state Creates a sense of wanting to change present state so that it will move closer and closer to ideal state |
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Discrepancy and postive emotional states |
Doing something better than you need to be doing
When a person is making satisfactory progress toward reducing the present- ideal discrepancy we have feelings of hope, excitement, eagerness, enthusiasm
If the rate or progress is much better than anticipated we have feelings of joy, delight and bliss If doing better than you need to you will coast a bit (easing motivator) |
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Discrepancy and negative emotional states |
Negative emotions mean you are doing something worse than you should be Person is making unsatisfactory progress toward reducing the present- ideal discrepancy Progress is worse than what is needed leads to frustration Progress is much worse leads to discouragement Progress is much much worse leads to sadness Progress is much much much worse leads to depression Can also energize can cause you to push harder (progress pushing motivator) |
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Emotion, affect and feelings are not only a rate of progress scorecard, but also a progress pushing or easing motivator itself |
Know |
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Two kinds of discrepancy |
Discrepancy reduction Discrepancy creation |
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What is discrepancy reduction |
Based the the discrepancy detecting feedback that underlines plans and corrective motivation
The enviroment brings some standard if excellence (ideal state) to the person's awareness ans asked if theu are performing to that driserd level
Correspond to plan based corrective motivation
Is reactive, deficiency overcoming and revolves around a feedback system Negative feedback loop -discrepancy arises, action is taken, negative feedback (discrepancy gets smaller) terminates action |
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What Is discrepancy creation |
Based in feed forward system in which the person looks forward and proactively sets a future, higher goal Corresponds to goal setting motivation Is proactive, growth pursuing, and resolves around a feel forward system Postive feedback loop -discrepancy is created, action is taken, postivie feedback energizes future discrepancy |
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Three defintions of a goal |
Whatever an individual is striving to accomplish A desired end state that guides behavior A future focused cogntvie representation of a desired end state that guides behavior |
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Two parts of goal setting |
Standard -a defintion of what adequate performance is -a reference point for guiding subsequent mental and physical action so one can evaluate adequacy for one's performance -defines the cross over point between satisfaction and dissatisfaction Incentive -a performance criterion for reinforcement -an target to aim for usually with an external object to aim for such as money |
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Goal performance discrepancy |
Discrepancy between thier present level of accomplishment and their ideal level of accomplishment |
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Goals and performance |
People with goals outperform those without goals or when they themselves don't have goals Goal setting enhances performance but the type of goal one sets is a key deteinanant in the extent to which a goal translated into performance gains |
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The three different goal mechanisms that explain which goals do and not not enhance performance |
Goal difficulty -how hard the Goal is to accomplish Goal specificity -how clearly the Goal informs the person precisely what they need to do Goal congruence -how filly endorsed, authentic and whole heartedly accepted it is |
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Goal difficulty |
As goals increase in difficulty, performance increases in a linear fashion
The more difficult the goal the more it energizes the performer
Because people exert more effort in proportion to what the goal requires of them
Energizes the performer -increased effort, work harder Sustains behavior -increases persistence |
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Goal specificity |
Specific goals draw attention to what one needs to do and reduces ambiguity in thought and variability in performance direct the energy toward a course of action -increases attention and planning |
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Goal congruence |
Self concordant goals allow the person to tap into and draw for personal resources that energize, direct and sustain goal pursuit
-energizes and direct the performer
also sustains behavior -increases persistence Self goals and goals by others are both impactful so it may not be as important |
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Latham and Locke (1991) |
Has been cinsudtently that Performance is a linear function of goal difficulty (Moderately postive) Given adequate ability and commitment to a goal the harder thr goal the higher the performance Because people adjust their level of effort to the difficulty of the task -try harder for difficult rather than for easy goals |
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What is feedback |
The knowledge of results allows people to keep track of any progress toward their goal -need both a goal and feedback to maximize performance Provides the emotional punch that continuously bathes the goal setting process within emotional experiences of felt satisfaction and dissatisfaction |
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What is the importance of feedback |
1) it defines performance (instructive to future goal setting efforts) -above standard (feels satisfied, higher goal -at standard -below standard (dissatisfaction, greater effort) 1) feedback acts as a rienforcer or punisher |
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Criticism for goal setting |
It works best when tasks are relatively uninteresting and require only a straightforward procedure -creates motivation for task that cannot itself
Goal conflict -rarely pursue one goal at a time (conflict) -lead to goal overload (overwhelming)
Goals from others can undermine creativity and intrinsic motivation by interfering with autonomy and cogntive flexibility |
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Problems with long term goals |
There is a prolonged period of time in which performance goes unreunforced -goal commitment can be expected to decrease
Doesn't provide or generate immediate performance feedback |
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How to overcome problems with long term goals |
Perfomer may benefit by translating a long term goal into a series of short term goals
Especially necessary if long term goal is a relatively uninteresting task to perform |
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What is commitment |
Degree to which the individual is attached to the goal, considers it important, is determined to reach it and keeps it in the face of setbacks and obstacles |
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Commitment and performance (Erez and Zidon 1984) |
When goals are high, high commitment leads to better performance than low commitment
Less committed people give up their hard goals in favor for easier ones
When goals are low, high commitment may restrict performance because people will be loathe to raise their goals where uncommitted people may set higher goals (want additional challenge) |
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Danger of goal setting |
Increased stress (goal overload, conflict) Possibility for failure Non goal areas ignored (goals focus attention) Short range thinking (proximal vs distal) Cheating (when made public creates performance pressure) Undermines intrinsic motivation (interesting short term tasks are controlling) |
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Origins of a goal |
Others assign goals Self efficacy beliefs Value of the end state Personality traits Physiological needs Psychological needs Role models
All lead to the adoption of a goal to strive for |
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Goal striving |
Goal setting needs a great deal of goal striving ( effort, persistence, attention, planning) to translate into increased performance and goal attainment
Identify goal attainment strategies Create if then implementation intentions Make performance feedback available |
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What are Implementation intentions |
Is an if then plan that specifies in advance the goal striving process
Makes the distinction between two types of intentions - goal intention (setting a goal)
-implementation intention (striving to accomplish) Is important for goal striving happen without deliberation
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To form a implementation intention a person must |
Identify a response that will promote goal attainment -pre action period in which ones decides when, where, and how that goal will be implemented
Needs to anticipate a suitable occasion to initiate that response
Help direct ones attention toward goal directed action while excluding distractions |
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Implementation intentions help to solve three self regulation problems with goal striving |
Getting started -despite daily distractions
Staying on track (persisting) -in spite if of difficulties
Resuming -once an interruption happens |
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Attaining personal goals: self concordance plus implementation intention equals success Koestner, Lekes, Powers, Chicoine (2002) |
Implementation intentions were especially predictive of greater goal progress when the goals were difficult |
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Problem of getting started |
Implementation intentions make sure people don't miss a good opportunity to act
People fail to act beacue of short term temptations win the motivational competition vs long term goals
Implementation intentions get ahead of this motivational conflict to make acting for long term benefits automatic |
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Problem of staying on track |
During goal striving people encounter difficult circumstances, distractions Implementions intentions shield goal striving from potential derailment Implementation intentions create closed mindness that allows one's attention to include goal directed action and exclude distractions |
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Problem of Resuming |
Implementation intention help people finish up incomplete goals |
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Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit Gollwitzer and Brandstatter (1997) |
Half participants were instructed to form an implementation intention specifying when and where during the holiday they intended to write their report (visualize) These formed individuals -started writing the report sooner -mailed it in sooner -more did it during Christmas holidays -and stuck to the intended day they picked |
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Sequential steps for effective goal setting |
(Steps in goal setting process) Specify objective/ goal Define goal difficulty Define goal specificity Specify time span until performance (Goal striving process) -check on goal acceptance -discuss goal attainment strategies -create implemention intentions -provide performance feedback |
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Setting, elaborating, and reflecting on personal goal improves academic performance Morisano, Hirsh, Peterson, Pihl, Shore (2010) |
The goal group had increased GPA in second semester The control group (who didn't set goals) had little difference in GPA from first semester to second semester |
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What is goal disengagement |
Is the reduction of effort and goal commitment
Meaning trying less hard or stopping altogether and reducing the importance that is attached to the goal
For unattainable goals we need to know when to switch over to an attainable |
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Unattainable goals and new alternative goals |
Continuing with unattainable goals can leave goal striver vulnerable to psychological distress When give up effort and commitment to an unattainable goal we are able to adopt a new alternative goal This new goal has thr potential for psychological well being |
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What is the benefit of goal disengagement |
It is an adaptive course of action that leads the person to take up a new goal as it frees up resources in the pursuit of one's remaining goals If there is no alternative goal however disengagement brings a sense of emptiness |
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Giving up on unattainable goals:benefits for health Wrosch, Miller, Scheier, Brun (2007) |
The ability to disengage from unattainable goals is associated with better self reported health and more normative patters of diurnal cortisol secretion Goal reengagment is unrelated to indicators of physical health |
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Goal disengagement and cortisol levels |
Cortisol peaks shortly after waking and declines throught the day Long term stressor can exhibit a fattened rhythm of inadequate morning output and failure to reduce throughout the day Goal disengagement tendencies are associated with steeper decline of cortisol across tte day |
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Locke and Latham (1990) suggest that humans can motivate themselves by setting future goals thar should be difficult and specific and affect behavior in 4 ways..... |
Direct attention Mobilize effort to the task Encourage persistence Facilitate the development of strategies |
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Humans are inclided to persist in behavior..... |
When they are rewarded intermittently When they are making progress towards a goal When theu are making no progress towards a goal but have hope for attaining a goal |
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Goal setting theory Locke and Latham (1984 and 1990) |
Specific, difficult goals lead to better performance |
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Goals should be SMART to be effective |
Specific Measurable Attainable Results oriented Time bound |
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What is a mind set |
A cognitive framework (beliefs) to guide one's attention, information processing, decision making, and thinking about the meaning of effort, success, failure and ones own personal qualities
Functions as a cogntivive motivational system that produces important downstream consequences |
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Four mind sets |
Deliberative implemental
Promotion prevention
Growth fixed Consistency dissonance |
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Deliberative implemental |
Two sequential ways of thinking to differentiate the patters of through that occurs during goal setting vs goal striving Motivation (energizes and directs) -goal setting -deliberative mindset Volition (maintenance and persistence) -goal striving -implemental mindset |
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Deliberative |
An open minded way of thinking to consider the desirability and feasibility of a range of possible goals that one might or might not pursue
Attention is casted wide to consider all information
Which desire is to be acted on |
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Implemental |
A post decisional close minded way of thinking that considers only information related to a goal attainment and shield against non goal related considerations
Focuses in getting started and persisting People persist longer and perform better |
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Implications of deliberative implemental mindsets |
Different mindsets are required at different stages in the goal setting and goal striving process -if you have the wrong mindset you are likely to be frustrated and unproductive
Different people can have different mindsets in the same situation and those different minds can lead to conflict |
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Promotion prevention mind set |
Two different orientations people adopt during goal striving to distinguish an eager improvement based regulatory system from a vigilant security based regulatory system One is not better than the other |
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Promotion |
A focus on advancing the self towards ideals by adopting an eager locomotion behavior strategy
Centers on the possibility of advancement
Individual is sensitive to postive outcomes, approach possibilities of gain
Making good things happen
(Just fo it) |
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Prevention |
A focus on preventing the self from not maintaining one's duties and responsibilities by adopting a vigilant behavior strategy
Centers on responsibility and duty
Individuals senstivie to negative outcomes, avoids possible losses
Being careful to make sure bad things don't happen
(Do the right thing) |
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The antecedents and consequences of promotion mind set |
Attention to improvement needs Goals are seen as ideals and hopes Situations signaling possible gain
》》 promotion focus 》》》》》》
Sensitivity to psotive outcomes Motivational orientation to attain gains Behavioral is fast, eager locomotion Emotionally - cheerfulness and happy with ideal met - dejection |
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The antecedents and consequences of prevention mind set |
Attention to security needs Goals are seen as responsibilities, oughts Situations signaling possible loss
》》》》》 prevention focus 》》》》》
Sensitivity to negative outcomes Motivational orientation is to prevent loss Behavior is cautious, vigilant, assessment Emotionally -calm when oughts maintained -agitatied uneasy when not maintained |
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Promotion mindset defintion of success and failure |
Success means the presence of gain
-person strives to attain a postive outcome
-postvie outcome takes the form of advancement or improved state of affairs
Failure has no special meaning |
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Prevention mindset defintion of success and failure |
Success means the absence of loss
-person strives to maintain a satisfactory state
-success means that no change has happened
Failure means a loss and a painful change has happened |
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Goal striving strategies for promotion mind set (what feels right) |
Complete school work promptly Attend all classes Spend more time in the library Be prepared for tests Increase motivation to earn a high GPA |
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Goal striving strategies for prevention mind set (what feels right) |
Stop procrastinating Avoid missing any classes Spend less time at social gatherings Avoid being unprepared for tests Don't lose motivation to earn high GPA |
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Ideal self guides |
Is a goal of what one would like to become
Leads people to adopt a regulatory oriented toward accomplishment and to a heightened sensitivity to move toward opportunities for psotive outcomes
Promotion mind set |
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Out self guides |
Is a goal specificity what one or others believe you should or must do
Adopt a regulatory style orientated toward responsibility and heightened sensitivity to losing what one already has
Prevention mind set |
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regulatory fit |
Decisions and behaviors feel right when people rely on a goal striving that fits their mindset
Something feels right when goals and strategies are matched
It produces increased motivational strength |
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Promotion mindset on motivation and well being |
Exert more effort, feel more alert, value the experience more and cope and perform better when that strive with eagerness Eagar approach leads to feelings of interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction |
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Prevention mindset on motivation and well being |
Exert mide effort, feel more alert, value the experience more and cope and perform better when they strive with vigilance Cautious vigilance leads to feelings of interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction |
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Optimal goal striving happens when |
When both prevention and promotion mind sets are necessary Need both speed and accuracy A job well done is one that is done quickly and accurately which requires both mind sets |
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What are implicit theories important |
Because they -refer to hypothesis, beliefs, and assumptions that individuals have about the world -happiness has been linked to subjective beliefs, attitudes and implicit theories |
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Growth fixed mind set |
Two contrasting ways of thinking about the nature of one's personal qualities
Concerns the question of how people think about their personal qualities Important for achievement striving because they guide the type of goals people pursue |
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Fixed mindset |
Personal qualities are fixed, unchangeable and set by nature
If you have a lot your are doing well (motivationally) If you have a low level then you are in trouble (motivationally)
Refered to as entity theorists -because they believe that there is a physical entity that dwells inside each person to determine how much a person is born with |
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Growth mindset |
Personal qualities are changeable and that it can be increased through nurture
Can be developed through effort
What is motivationally important is how willing you are to work hard to develop that talent (not how much)
Referred to as incremental theorists -because personal qualities can be developed incrementally over time |
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Meaning of effort for growth vs fixed mindset |
Growth -effort is a tool -todays effort later becomes learning and skill
Fixed -high effort means low ability -high effort is evidence of a lack of ability |
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Difficult tasks and fixed mind set |
When facing difficult tasks one needs high effort
Fixed mind set people don't see effort as effective
In difficult tasks fixed mindset adopt maladaptive motivational patterns -withhold effort -engage in self handicapping -never appreciate what effort can do |
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Origins of fixed mind set |
Ability praise -judges the children personal qualities
Ability criticism
Genius role models
Leads to Ability attributions, fixed mindset and entity oriented meaning system |
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Origins of growth mindsets |
Effort/ strategy praise -comments on the child's underlying coping style (you worked hard)
Effort/ strategy criticism
Work ethic role models
Leads to Effort attributions, growth mind set and incremental oriented meaning system |
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What type of achievement goals do Growth mindset focus on |
Mastery goals
Concerned with learning somthing new and improving as much as they can Develop competence by improving, learning and making progress |
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What type of achievement goals do fixed mindset focus on |
Performance goals
Are concerned with looking smart and not looking dumb
Concerned with good performance when others are watching Demonstrate competence by doing better than others |
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What is an achievement goal |
A future focused cogntvie representation that guides behavior to a competence related end state that the individual is committed to wither approach or avoid
Concerned with why the person is trying to achieve something |
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Standard of excellence |
Any challenge to the students sense of competence that ends with a success or failure outcome |
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Know |
Fundamental determination of which type of achievement goal a student has is that students understanding of what constitutes competence
When facing a standard of excellence our sense of competence is being challenged |
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Competence and masterly vs performance goal orientation |
Matery (develop comptrence) -competence is viewed incrementally in reference to self set standards of excellence
Performance (demonstrate comptence) -competence is a characteristics of the privileged few -being able to demonstrate that one us competence indicates that ther are more able than others |
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Benefits to adopting mastery goals |
When adopted -preference for challenging tasks -use conceptually based learning strategies -greater intrinsic motivation -more likely to ask for info and help This leads to -working harder -persisting longer -performing better |
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How to promote mastery goals |
Master goals and performance goals Are learned
Teachers influence the types of achiemvent goals that students adopt
They do so by creating classroom situations that give students the goal of developing competence or displaying competence |
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Intrrgreted model of achivment motivation |
Intergrates classical approach (Atkinson) and contemporary approach (achievement goals) The classical achievement contruct of (achievement, competence beliefs and fear of failure) serve as antecedents that influence types of goals adopted 3 goals -adoption of mastery goals -adoption of performance approach goals -adoption of performance avoidance goals This leads to intrstic motivation or graded performance |
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Know |
Students attuned to mastery goals persist longer and more likely to attribute success and failure to interal controllable causes Students attuned to performance goals Are more frustrated and defensive in the face of failure and attribute success and failure to external factors |
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Dwecks theory of competence development |
Those who hold entity theory of intelligence place high value on success -worry failure will be evidence of low intelligence -make academic choices that maximize possibility they will perform well Those with an incremental theory of intelligence are not threatened by failure -set mastery goals and seek academic challenges that will help them grow |
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Wjat has Dwecks research told us |
Research on the impact of praise suggests that many teachers and parents may be unwittingly leading students to accept an entity view of intelligence Send the message that success and failure depend in somthjng beyond the students control When students perform well they have high self steam but is crashed as soon as thry hit academic stumbling block Students praised for effort view intelligence and malleable and self esteem remains stable -push through set backs and reach full potential |
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Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivation Compian, Arce, Mark man, Dweck (2006) |
You are a good drawer (genrric) You did a good job drawing (non generic)
Generic praise implied there is a stable ability that underlines performance (entity)
Non generic (incremental)
Those given generic praise denigrate their skill, feel sad, avoid unsuccessful drawings and drawing in general and fail to generate strategies to repair their mistake than those given non generic praise Praising students for their intelligence has thr potention tk limit their intellectual growth |
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Two types of goals identified in the original goals model |
Performance goals -purpose is to validate one's ability or avoid demonstrating a lack of ability Learning goals -aquire new knowledge or skills |
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Clarifying achievement goals and their impact Grant and Dweck (2003) |
Performance/ outcome goals Ability goal items -important to confirm my intelligence through course work
Normative goal items ) -normative outcome (do well compared to other)-normative ability (confirm intelligence compared to other) -normative ability (confirm intelligence compared to other)
Learning/ mastery goal items
Learning -strive to constantly learn and improve in courses
Challenge mastery -see out coursed that will be challenging |
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Achivment goals |
Learning goals do exert a positive influence on both intrinsic motivation and performance when individuals encounter prolonged challenge Performance goals that are focused on validating ability can have beneficial affects on performance when idinvduals are meeting with success -these same goals can predict impaired motivation and performance after setbacks |
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Ability orientation linked to inappropriate behavior coping (Rumination) |
Tendency to ruminate on one's setbacks has been associated with helplessness
Goals that tend to lead to ability attributes and negative self evaluation also predict dwelling on the negative outcome |
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Good cope bad cope: adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies following a critical negative work event Brown, Westbrook, Challagalla (2005) |
Findings indicate an adversive effect of emotion on performance but this effect us moderated by coping tactics
The experience of negative emotion elicits psychological and behavioral efforts to reduce its noxious effects and resolve situation that aroused them |
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Two broad classes of coping is defied as |
Emotion focused Problem focused |
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Aldwins and Revensons categorization of coping |
Instrumental strategies represented by task focused
Inhibition of action is represented by self control
Intrapsychic strategies represented by venting |
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Instrumental strategies represented by task focused |
Which is a problem oriented strategy consiting of efforts to maintain concentration on the steps needed to fulfill task
The extent individuals remain focused on goal pursuit, their performance is unlikely to be negatively affected
Task focused individuals avoid debilitating effects of rumination and self doubt |
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Inhibition of action is represented by self control |
Constitutes an individuals restraint from indulging in negative action tendencies that might further complicate or damage the situation
Has both problem and emtion focused aspects
-primary objective is to stabilize the situation and minimize negative consequences
-reduces counterproductive action tendencies |
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Intrapsychic strategies represented by venting |
Discharging ones negative emotions by expressing them to others
Emotion focused tactic -relief of negative feelings through vocal expression |
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Results of coping strategies and negative emotions |
Self control buffer the adverse effect of negative emotion on performance -an adaptive coping strategy Venting amplified the adversve effects of negative emotion -a maladaptvie coping strategy |
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Avoidance motivation and I'll being |
The fear of failure is a functional counterforce to achievement strving because it promotes people to adopt performance avoidance goals (trying to avoid making a mistake) which is associated with negative emotions Trying hard to avoid poor performance one regulates day to day behavior in a way that produces dissatisfaction and little enjoyment |
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Consistency dissonance mindset |
The near universal self view that one is a competent, moral and reasonable person |
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Consistency |
Information and behavior actions that confirm yes one us competent, moral and a reasonable person |
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Dissonance |
Information and behavioral actions that suggest that, no, one is actually not a competent, moral and reasonable person When beliefs about who the self is and what the self does are inconsistent we experience a psychological uncomfortable state of cogntive dissonance |
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Dissonance reduction strategies |
Remove the dissonant belief Reduce the importance of the dissonant belief Add a new consonant belief Increase the importance of the consonant belief |
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Situations that arouse dissonance |
Choice -choose between alternatives it arises -reduce it by viewing Choice positivity and non Choice negatively Insufficient justification -to justify unpromtes action people add new consonant beliefs Effort justification -if I did that I must really love this place New information -as collect information you expose yourself to opputtinesis to contradict beliefs |
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Self perception theory |
Argues that people develop and change their beliefs based on self observation -eat squid for whatever reason so we must like it |
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Difference between cogntvie dissonance theory and self perception theory |
Dissonance argues that beliefs change because negative affect from inconsistency Self perception argues we simply come yo belive whatever we say and do |
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When do dissonance and self perfection theory apply best |
Dissonance applies best to situations where people's beliefs are initially clear and strong Self perception applied best to situations where people's beliefs are vague and ambiguous |
