Anatomy Exam 3

Front 1

Muscle cells; elongated

Back 1

muscle fibers

Front 2

actin and myosin; contraction

Back 2

myofilaments

Front 3

myo- or mys-

Back 3

muscle

Front 4

sacro-

Back 4

flesh

Front 5

-striated
-voluntary
-contracts rapidly but tires easily

Back 5

skeletal muscle

Front 6

-striated
-involuntary
-intercalated disks

Back 6

cardiac muscle

Front 7

-nonstriated
-visceral
-involuntary
-slow and sustained contractions

Back 7

smooth muscle (all hollow organs)

Front 8

Functions of muscles

Back 8

-movement
-posture
-stabilize joints
-heat production

Front 9

functional characteristics of muscle

Back 9

-excitability or irritability (responds to stimulus; ACh, hormone, pH)
-contractility
-extensibility
-elasticity (resumes resting length after contraction)

Front 10

Connective tissue coverings of muscles

Back 10

-endomysium
-fascicle
-epimysium
-deep fascia

Front 11

areolar, around each muscle fiber

Back 11

endomysium

Front 12

bundle of muscle cells covered by a perimysium (collagen)

Back 12

fascicle

Front 13

surrounds entire muscle (fibrous)

Back 13

epimysium

Front 14

above epimysium; around muslce and other structures

Back 14

deep fascia

Front 15

nerves and blood in muscles:

Back 15

-every fiber must be attached to a nerve ending
-continuous blood flow brings oxygen and removes wastes
-each muscle served by an artery and one or more veins
-vessels enter endomysium
-capillaries are winding to allow for stretching

Front 16

origin

Back 16

immoveable end

Front 17

moves toward origin when muscle contracts

Back 17

insertion

Front 18

fleshy attachments; epimysium fused to periosteum or perichondrium

Back 18

direct attachment

Front 19

connective tissue wrappings extend as a tendon or aponeurosis to attach muscle

Back 19

indirect attachments

Front 20

broad and flat while tendon is rope like

Back 20

aponeurosis

Front 21

the muscles microscopic plasma membrane

Back 21

sarcolemma

Front 22

produced by union of hundreds of embryonic cells; accounts for large size

Back 22

syncytium

Front 23

made up of more stored glycogen and contains myoglobin, a rid pigment that binds O2

Back 23

sarcoplasm

Front 24

-make up the majority of the muscle cell types (80% of cell volume)
-run parallel entire length of cell
-tightly packed with other organelles squeezed together

Back 24

myofibrils

Front 25

compose the myofibrils in chains; functional units of muscles

Back 25

sarcomere

Front 26

what causes the striations in muscles?

Back 26

A and I bands

Front 27

-visible in relaxed muscle
-consists of myosin only

Back 27

H zone

Front 28

boundaries of a sarcomere

Back 28

Z discs

Front 29

-made of myosin
-dominate A bands

Back 29

thick filaments

Front 30

-made of actin
-only type in I bands

Back 30

thin filaments

Front 31

-makes up thick filaments
-has tail and two globular heads
-polypeptide chains

Back 31

myosin

Front 32

heads of myosin that link to actin during contractions

Back 32

cross bridges

Front 33

each thick filament has __ myosin molecules

Back 33

200

Front 34

these proteins control actin-myosin binding for contractions

Back 34

troponin and tropomyosin

Front 35

-made of smooth ER
-surrounds myofibirl with terminal -cisternae (end sacs) at A-I junctions
-stores and releases calcium in cells

Back 35

sarcoplasmic reticulum

Front 36

-continuous with extracellular space
-make up the T system
-conduct impulses to every sarcomere in the muscle

Back 36

T-Tubules

Front 37

the thousands of T-Tubules of each muscle cell

Back 37

T system

Front 38

-propose in 1954 by Hugh Huxley
-calcium uncovers actin binding sites
-thin filaments slide past thick filaments so actin and myosin overlap during the contraction of a muscle
-H zones disappear and Z discs get closer

Back 38

Sliding filament theory

Front 39

the action of myosin heads pivoting as it binds; pulling thin filaments to the center

Back 39

power stroke

Front 40

cross bridge dettachment occurs as __ binds myosin head and loosens the bond

Back 40

ATP

Front 41

-hydrolysis of ATP provides energy to return mysoin to high-energy "cocked" position
-repeated over and over as sarcomere shortens

Back 41

cocking of myosin head

Front 42

-begins 3-4 hours after death with peak at 12 hours
-myosin heads cannot detach due to lack of ATP

Back 42

rigor mortis

Front 43

the motor neuron, axonal endings on muscle fiber; usually 1 per fiber

Back 43

neuromuscular junction

Front 44

space between synaptic knob and sarcolema; filled with a gel

Back 44

synaptic cleft

Front 45

membranous sacs in knob that contain acetylcholine

Back 45

synaptic vesicles

Front 46

area of sarcolemma that has junctional folds for increased surface area

Back 46

Motor end plate

Front 47

__ released in knob causes vesicles to release Ach; Ach binds to receptors etc.

Back 47

calcium

Front 48

a result of positive sodium ions entering to make inside less negative, Na+ gates open and K+

Back 48

depolarization

Front 49

a period where the muscle cannot be stimulated to produce another action potential

Back 49

refractory period

Front 50

once initiated, an action potential cannot be stopped and causes full contraction of the fiber; muscles contract completely or not at all

Back 50

all-or-none response

Front 51

what prevents the muscles from staying contracted?

Back 51

acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Front 52

inadequate ACh receptors; destroyed as disease progresses

Back 52

myasthenia gravis

Front 53

the poison on poison arrow, binds ACh receptors so muscles can't respond

Back 53

curare

Front 54

time from stimulus until muscle contracts

Back 54

latent period

Front 55

steps to the sliding filament theory

Back 55

1. latent period
2. action potential down T tubules
3. sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium
4. calcium removes blocking action of tropomyosin
5. myosin cross bridges attach and shorten sarcomere
6. calcium pump takes calcium back SR for storage
7. tropomyosin again blocks actin active sites

Front 56

a motor neuron and all muscle fibers it supplies

Back 56

motor unit

Front 57

__ motor units in areas of precise control

Back 57

smaller

Front 58

graphic recording of a contraction

Back 58

myogram

Front 59

response of muscle to a single brief threshold stimulus

Back 59

muscle twitch

Front 60

onset of contraction to peak tension development

Back 60

contraction period

Front 61

ca 2+ goes back into the SR

Back 61

period of relaxation

Front 62

two identical stimuli in rapid succession, second twitch will be stronger; muscle already partially contracted (not fully relaxed) and more calcium released; relaxation still occurs

Back 62

wave summation

Front 63

increase rate of stimulus until relaxation phase disappears; most common

Back 63

tetanus

Front 64

muscle loses ability to contract due to lack of ATP

Back 64

muscle fatigue

Front 65

how do our muscles produce different amount of tension?

Back 65

recruitment (multiple motor unit summation)

Front 66

-staircase efect reflecting increasing Ca 2+ activity
-more heat enhances enzyme activity
-contractions increase in strength with each stimulus
-bases for warming up in athletics

Back 66

treppe

Front 67

some motor units active due to spinal reflexes activated by stretch receptors in muscles and tendons

Back 67

muscle tone

Front 68

force exerted by contracting muscle on an object

Back 68

muscle tension

Front 69

resistance to movement exerted by an object

Back 69

Load

Front 70

what does isotonic mean?

Back 70

same tone/tension, the muscle changes length and moves load

Front 71

muscle shortens; picks up a book etc.

Back 71

concentric contractions

Front 72

-muscle lengthens
-coordination etc
-calf muscle going uphill, quads in a a squat position
-50% more forceful but use less O2 and energy, involve fewer fibers

Back 72

eccentric

Front 73

tension increases but muscle does not change length

Back 73

isometeric contractions

Front 74

you have 4-6 seconds worth of this; must be regenerated by ADP Phosphorylation

Back 74

stored ATP

Front 75

high-energy storage molecule

Back 75

creatine phosphate

Front 76

-CP+ADP------>creatine+ATP; reaction is reversible during inactivity
-catalyzed by creatine kinase
-ATP and cp provide maxium power for 15-20 seconds

Back 76

ADP phosphorylation

Front 77

occurs in mitochondria, requires oxygen; involves several chemical reactions to make ATP

Back 77

aerobic respiration

Front 78

sum of reactions needed to make ATP; glucose+oxygen---->carbon dioxide+water+ATP

Back 78

oxidative phosphorylation

Front 79

oxidative phosphorylation (aerobic repiration) yields __ ATP per glucose, but its slow due to the number of steps

Back 79

36-38

Front 80

necessary when muscles work vigorously for extended periods because working muscles compress vessels and reduce oxygen suppy; glycolisis is used

Back 80

anaeroic glycolysis

Front 81

glucose-->2 pyruvic acid+2 ATP; occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Back 81

glycolysis

Front 82

during glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted to __ during anaerobic glycolysis

Back 82

latic acid

Front 83

in glycolysis, lactic acid is converted to __ by the liver

Back 83

pyruvic acid

Front 84

gycolysis only produces __% as much ATP as aerobic, but does it 2.5x faster

Back 84

5

Front 85

what type of events rely on ATP and CP stores?

Back 85

sprints, weight lifting, etc.

Front 86

sports almost completely fueled by anaerobic

Back 86

tennis, soccer

Front 87

activities that depend on aerobic respiration

Back 87

marathon running, prolonged activities

Front 88

the time a muscle can continue to contract using aerobic pathways

Back 88

aerobic endurance

Front 89

point of switch over to anaerobic respiration

Back 89

anaerobic threshold

Front 90

-the physiological inability of a muscle to contract
-glycogen and glucose exhausted
-results from a relative deficit of ATP, not an absence of ATP when contractures would occur (continuous cross bridges)
-lactic acid buildup causes low pH, potassium is lost and excess sodium enters if not enough ATP

Back 90

muscle fatigue

Front 91

-amount of oxygen that must be taken in following muscle activity to convert lactic acid to pyruvic acid, replace replace glycogen stores, synthesize ATP and CP, liver must convert lactic acid to glucose or glycogen
-difference between O2 needed for completely aerobic respiration that was actually used
-in a 100 yd dash, you use 6 L of O2 but VO2 max would be 1.2 L; shortage of 4.8 L
-athletes have a higher (10-45%) VO2 max

Back 91

oxygen debt

Front 92

__ of energy converted to useful work; remainder is given off as heat in muscles

Back 92

20-25%

Front 93

the force of contraction factors

Back 93

-number of muscle fivers contracting: more motor units, more tension
-muscle size: increased area, more tension and greater strength; exercise causes hypertrophy
-series-elastic elements: muscle must attach to movable structures and tendons and coverings must be pulled taunt
-degree of muscle stretch: optimum length-tension relationship in sarcomere when muscle slightly stretched and actin and myosin barely overlap-maximum sliding can occur

Front 94

the greater the __, the longer the latent period and slower contraction result in shorter duration;

Back 94

load

Front 95

in isometric contractions where load exceeds force, velocity is __

Back 95

zero

Front 96

types of muscle fibers

Back 96

red slow-twitch, white fast-twitch, and intermediate fast-twitch fibers

Front 97

-slow-acting myosin ATPases
-myoglobin, mitochondria, rich capillary supply give it red color
-primary energy fuel is fat if oxygen is available
-fatigue resistant

Back 97

red slow-twitch fibers

Front 98

-little myoglobin, therefore pale, few mitochondria
-diameter twice that of red
-fast-acting myosin ATPases
-large glycogen reserves and depend on anaerobic respiration
-fatiguable becasue lactic acid accumulates quickly
-brief, intense contractions

Back 98

white fast-twitch fibers

Front 99

-red or pink with intermediate size
-fast-acting myosin ATPases
-high in myoglobin, depend on oxygen and have rich capillary supply like red
-somewhat fatigue resistant

Back 99

intermediate fast-twitch fibers

Front 100

most muscles have a mixture of fibers but in a __, the fibers are all the same type

Back 100

motor unit

Front 101

marathon runners have __% slow-twitch

Back 101

80

Front 102

sprinters have __% fast twitch

Back 102

60

Front 103

increases capillaries, mitochondria, myoglobin, especially in red slow-twitch fibers; hypertrophy of heart, better metabolism and neuromuscular coordination, increases GI movement, better gas exchange in the lungs

Back 103

aerobic exercise

Front 104

usually anaerobic, isometric with high resistance (weights)

Back 104

resistance exercise

Front 105

the muscle gets larger

Back 105

hypertrophy

Front 106

best kind of exercise for overall fitness

Back 106

cross-training

Front 107

disuse of muscles can lead to __, due to lack of neural stimulation.

Back 107

atrophy

Front 108

-spindle shaped, small cells with central nuclei; skeletal are 20x wider and thousands of times longer
-endomysium containing vessels and nerves between fibers; no coarser connective tissue sheaths
-arranged in sheets or layers in vessels, or hollow organs\-longitudinal and circular layers present in most of above
-no striations but thick and thin filaments are present
-ratio of thick to thin filaments 1:16 compared to 1:2 in skeletal muscle
-tropomyosin but no troponin comoplex

Back 108

smooth muscle (microscopic structure)

Front 109

alternating contractions of circular and longitudinal muscle

Back 109

peristalsis

Front 110

bulbus swellings of innervating nerve fibers

Back 110

varicosities

Front 111

specialized conections between muscle cells that allow AP transmition from cell to cell

Back 111

gap junction

Front 112

set the pace for contraction some are self-excitory

Back 112

pacemaker cells

Front 113

mechanism of smooth muscle contraction

Back 113

-actin and myosin interact by sliding filament mechanism
-calcium triggers contraction
-ATP provides energy for sliding process

Front 114

have slow, sustained contractions that take 30x longer then other muscles types and is very efficient

Back 114

smooth muscle

Front 115

regulation of smooth muscle contraction

Back 115

unlike skeletal; different neurotransmitters have different effects (bronchioles, vessels, etc.)

Front 116

-stress-relaxation response: allows hollow organs to fill slowly before contractions are stimulated
-length and tension changes: smooth muscle can create equal tension even when stretched to twice or reduced by 1/2 (total of 150%) while skeletal muscle can only tolerate a 60% change (+ or - 30%)
-hyperplasia: division and multiplication of cells (ie uterus)

Back 116

special features of smooth muscle

Front 117

-contracts rythmically and as a unit
-gap junctions between cells
-spontaneous action potentials possible

Back 117

single unit (visceral) smooth muscle

Front 118

smooth muscles types (occur in digestive and urinary tract)

Back 118

single-unit (visceral) and multiunit smooth muscle

Front 119

-airways and large arteries, arrector pili, muscles that control pupil size
-independent muscle fibers
-rich nerve supply

Back 119

multiunit smooth muscle

Front 120

disorders and effects of aging on muscles

Back 120

-muscular dystrophy
-cramps
-strains
-age

Front 121

-brought on by a sex linked recesive trait
-muscles destroyed and enlarge du to an increase in fat and connective tissue
carried by females and passed on to sons
-boys diagnosed at 2-6 years of age and die in their 20's from respiratory failure

Back 121

muscular dystrophy

Front 122

caused by decreased blood sugar, sodium, calcium, or dehydration

Back 122

cramps

Front 123

excess stretching, possible tearing due to overuse; inflamation occurs

Back 123

strain

Front 124

increase in connective tissue, results in a decrease in muscle mass and strength (50% by the age of 80)

Back 124

ages effect on muscles

Front 125

rigid structure that moves on a fixed fulcrum (joint) when force is applied; possible to move heavier load farther and faster than otherwise possible

Back 125

lever

Front 126

applied force used to move the resistance or load; muscle contraction

Back 126

effort

Front 127

work at a mechanical disadvantage; load close to fulcrum and effort applied far from fulcrum

Back 127

power levers

Front 128

work at a mechanical disadvantage; load far from fulcrum and effort near fulcrum (pitching a ball)

Back 128

speed levers

Front 129

fulcrum between effort and load; scissors, seesaw, crow bar

Back 129

first class lever

Front 130

load between effort and fulcrum wheelbarrow, standing on toes

Back 130

second class lever

Front 131

effort between load and fulcrum; speed, mechanical disadvantages; most skeletal muscles

Back 131

third class lever

Front 132

straplike or fusiform with an expanded belly most ability to shorten, but not as powerful

Back 132

parallel fascicle arrangement

Front 133

short fascicles that attach obliquely to a central tendon (uni-, bi-, and multipennate)

Back 133

pennate fascicle arrangement

Front 134

broad origin and fascicles converge toward single tendon

Back 134

convergent fascicle arrangement

Front 135

concentric rings of fascicles; sphincters or bicularis oris and occuli

Back 135

circular fascicle arrangement

Front 136

muscles can only shorten and usually __ moves toward __

Back 136

insertion, origin

Front 137

-agonists
-provide major force for movement

Back 137

prime movers

Front 138

-oppose/reverse a particular movement
-may regulate action of prime mover
-found on opposite side of joint from prime mover

Back 138

antagonists

Front 139

aid agonists by promoting the same movement or reduce undesirable movements

Back 139

synergists

Front 140

the ways to name muscles

Back 140

-location
-shape
-relative size
-direction of fibers
-number of origins
-origin or insertion location
-action of muscle

Front 141

bone the muscle lies over, around mouth, medius, lateralis, profoundus (deep), superficialis

Back 141

examples of naming a muscle based on location

Front 142

deltoid is triangular, obicularis, latissimus (widest)

Back 142

examples of naming a muscle based on shape

Front 143

longus, brevis, maximus, major, minor, magnus, vastus

Back 143

examples of naming a muscle based on relative size

Front 144

rectus (straight), oblique

Back 144

examples of naming a muscle based on direction of fibers

Front 145

quadricepts, biceps, triceps

Back 145

examples of naming a muscle based on number of origins

Front 146

thyohiod, frontalis, supraspinatus

Back 146

examples of naming a muscle based on origin or insertion

Front 147

adductor, abductor, extensor, supinator, pronator

Back 147

examples of naming a muscle based on action of muscle

Front 148

__ and endocrine system regulates and maintains homeostasis through electrical signals

Back 148

nervous system

Front 149

functions of the nervous system

Back 149

-sensory: sensory receptors monitor internal and external changes or stimuli
-integration: processes and interprets sensory input
-motor output: response by effecto organs (muscles and glands)

Front 150

organization of the nervous system

Back 150

-central nervous system
-peripheral nervous system

Front 151

-made up of the brain and spinal chord
-found in the dorsal body cavity
-integrates and controls effectors

Back 151

central nervous system

Front 152

-made up of spinal and cranial nerves to and from the spinal cord and brain

Back 152

peripheral nervous system

Front 153

functional division of the peripheral nervous system

Back 153

-sensory (afferent): somatic and visceral afferents
-motor (efferent): to muscles and glands

Front 154

the subdivisions of the motor (efferent) part of the peripheral nervous system

Back 154

-somatic nervous system: voluntary nervous system, skeletal muscle control
-autonomic nervous system (ANS): fibers regulating smooth and cardiac muscles and glands; involuntary nervous system (divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions)

Front 155

the nervous system consists of __ and __.

Back 155

neurons and supporting cells

Front 156

-smaller than neurons
-glia:neurons ratio=50:1
-make up half of the brains mass

Back 156

CNS neuroglia

Front 157

the types of CNS neuroglia cells

Back 157

-astrocytes
-microglia
-ependymal cells
-oligodendrocytes

Front 158

-most abundant kind of neuroglia, star-shaped cells
-wrap around capillaries and neurons; form barriers between the two
-antigen:presentors--->stimulates immune system

Back 158

astrocytes

Front 159

-have spiny processes
-macrophages

Back 159

microglia

Front 160

-squamous to columnar in shape, many ciliated to circulate CSF
-form barrier between CSF and tissue

Back 160

ependymal cells

Front 161

-cytoplasmic extensions around thicker neurons (in the CNS)
-produce myelin sheath (insulator)

Back 161

oligodendrocytes ("few branches")

Front 162

neuroglia cells of the PNS

Back 162

satellite cells and schwann cells

Front 163

surround cell bodies in ganglia and may control chemical environment of associated neurons

Back 163

satellite cells

Front 164

form myelin sheaths around larger fibers and act as phagocytes

Back 164

schwann cells

Front 165

characteristics of neurons

Back 165

-longevity: 100+ years
-amitotic: cannot reproduce
-high metabolic rate: need a consistent supply of O2 and glucose

Front 166

-often called the soma or perikaryon
-is biosynthetic: makes brain chemicals (neurontransmitters)
-no centriols--->NO MITOSIS
-have nissl bodies: rough ER
-have elaborate golgi apparati

Back 166

the cell body

Front 167

clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

Back 167

nuclei

Front 168

clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

Back 168

ganglia

Front 169

bundles of neuron processes in the CNS

Back 169

tracts

Front 170

bundles of neuron processes in the PNS

Back 170

nerves

Front 171

-input regions with great surface area
-recieves impules from neighboring axons and delivers them to the cell body

Back 171

dendrites

Front 172

cone-shaped area of cell body leading to axon

Back 172

axon hillock

Front 173

long axons (lumbar to toes are 3-4 ft long)

Back 173

nerve fibers

Front 174

right angles from axon; may or may not be present

Back 174

axon collaterals

Front 175

end-branches (10,000 or more per axon); aka axonal terminal, synaptic knobs

Back 175

telodendria

Front 176

-one per neuron
-conducting components that generate and transmit nerve impulses
-neurotransmitters in ending excite or inhibit
-no nissl bodies and therefore degenerate rapidly if cut

Back 176

axon

Front 177

-larger in diameter, longer neurons usually myelinated
-myelin protects, insulates, and increaeses speed of transmission
-only axons are myelinated, not dendrites

Back 177

myelinated fibers

Front 178

conduct up to 150x slower than myelinated fibers (1 m/s vs 150 m/s

Back 178

unmyelinated fibers

Front 179

sheath of schwann cell around myelin sheath that contains cytoplasm and nucleus

Back 179

neurilemma

Front 180

gaps between adjacent schwann cells

Back 180

nodes of ranvier

Front 181

impulse jumps from node of ranvier to node of ranvier

Back 181

saltatory conductoin

Front 182

myelinated fibers in the CNS

Back 182

white matter

Front 183

nerve cell bodies and unmyinated fibers in the CNS

Back 183

gray matter

Front 184

structural classification of neurons

Back 184

-multipolar
-bipolar
-unipolar

Front 185

-3 or more processes
-most common kind of structural neuron
-CNS

Back 185

multipolar

Front 186

axon and dendrite (2 processes) on opposite sides of cell body; rare in adults except special senses as receptors (eye and nose)

Back 186

bipolar

Front 187

single process from cell body with T-like proximal and distal fibers

Back 187

unipolar

Front 188

functional neuron classification

Back 188

-sensory or afferent
-association or interneurons
-motor or efferent

Front 189

-cell bodies in sensory ganglia outside CNS
-only distal areas are receptors

Back 189

Sensory or afferant neurons

Front 190

-multipolar
-entirely in CNS
-99% of the bodies neurons
-integration or interpretaion

Back 190

association or interneurons

Front 191

-impulses away from CNS
-primarily multipolar
-cell bodies in CNS
-form junctions with effector cells

Back 191

motor or efferent neurons

Front 192

electricity measured in volts or milivolts between two points

Back 192

potential difference or potential

Front 193

in the plasma membrane of a neuron; each is selective.
two types:
1. passive or leakage
2. active or gated
-chemically gated (transmitter-gated)
-voltage-gated or voltage dependent due to changes in membrane potential

Back 193

ion channels

Front 194

-approximately -70mV across cell membrane
-membrane is polarized
-due to high Na+ outside and K+ inside of the cells and the high concentration of ANIONIC PROTEINS inside of the cell
-maintained by differential permeability of membrane and sodium-potassium pump

Back 194

resting membrane potential

Front 195

ejects 3 Na+ while transporting 2 K+ back into the cell

Back 195

Na+-K+ pump

Front 196

reduction in membrane potential; becomes less negative than resting potential

Back 196

depolarization

Front 197

membrane more negative or further from zero

Back 197

hyperpolarization

Front 198

-nerve and muscle cells communicate primarily by these
-called a nerve impulse in nervous tissue
-voltage gated channels open
-only occur in axons

Back 198

Action potentials

Front 199

AP generation (4 steps)

Back 199

1. resting state
2. depolarization (sodium permeability increases Na+ enters the cell)
3. repolarization (potassium gates open, decline in Na+ permiability)
4. undershoot (hyperpolarization)

Front 200

positive ions in axoplam move toward area that is stillnegative (polarized)

Back 200

AP propagation

Front 201

-strong stimulus causes threshold to be reached more quickly while weak stimuli must be repeated to achieve teh necessary current flow
-AP happens completley or not at all

Back 201

all-or-none-response

Front 202

period where nerve is incapable of responding to another stimulus

Back 202

absolute refractory period

Front 203

sodium gates are closed, potassium gates open and repolarizatin is occurring; threshold is higher than resting cell

Back 203

relative refractory period

Front 204

factors affecting the speed of impluses

Back 204

-axon diameter: larger, faster due to decrease in resistance
-myelination: faster due to saltatory conduction

Front 205

a disorder in which demyelination occurs

Back 205

MS

Front 206

somatic sensory and motor to skin, skeletal muscles and joints; large and myelinated; fast (15-150 m/s)

Back 206

group A fibers

Front 207

ANS motor, visceral sensory and smaller somatic sensory form skin (pain and small touch); lightly myelinated with intermediate diameter (3-15 m/s)

Back 207

group B fibers

Front 208

smallest diameter and unmyelinated; slow (1 m/s)

Back 208

group C fibers

Front 209

the transfer of information from one neuron to another or an effector cell

Back 209

synapse

Front 210

impulses toward teh synapse

Back 210

presynaptic neuron

Front 211

electrical signals away from the synapse

Back 211

postsynaptic neuron

Front 212

-bridge gaps (like gap junctions)
-protein channels allow current-carrying ions to flow from neuron to neuron
-snchronize activity of interconnected neurons
-more abundant in embryonic nerve tissue and most replaced by chemical

Back 212

electrical synapses

Front 213

open or close ion channels

Back 213

neurotransmitters

Front 214

-axonal terminal of presynaptic neuron with synaptic vesicles that store neurotransmitter
-receptor region on postsynaptic membrane that has neurotransmitter receptors
-synaptic cleft

Back 214

chemical synapses

Front 215

separates the two; neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse and bind to receptors so that communication is UNIDIRECTIONAL

Back 215

synaptic cleft

Front 216

-AChE (acetylcholinesterase) or other enzyme
-reuptake into presynaptic terminal
-diffusion away from synapse

Back 216

methods of neurotransmitter control

Front 217

time it takes for above synaptic steps to occur

Back 217

synaptic delay

Front 218

-ACh
-biogenic amines:
1. catecholamines (dopamine)
2. indolamines: serotonin and histamine
-amino acids: GABA, glycine etc
-peptides: endorphins
-novel messengers: ATP, nitrous oxide

Back 218

different types of neurotransmitters

Front 219

psychoactive drugs like LSD bind to ___

Back 219

biogenic amine receptors

Front 220

alzheimers patients have a ___ deficiency

Back 220

ACh

Front 221

funcitonal classification of neurotranmittres

Back 221

-excitatory: cause depolarization
-inhibitory: cause hyperpolarization

Front 222

direct (open ion channels; ACh, AA) and indirect (intracellular second messengers)

Back 222

mechanism of action of neurotranmitters

Front 223

-system works in an all-or-nothing manner
-domino type-rapid and predictable
-reflexes
1. rapid, automatic responses
2. 5 compenents

Back 223

serial procesing

Front 224

inputs follow many paths to different areas of the CNS; same stimulus promotes many responses (such as odors)

Back 224

parallel processing

Front 225

becomes the cerebrum

Back 225

telencephalon

Front 226

becomes teh thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

Back 226

diencephalon

Front 227

turns into the midbrain of teh brainstem

Back 227

mesencephalon

Front 228

becomes the brainstem, pons, and cerebellum

Back 228

metencephalon

Front 229

becomes the brainstem

Back 229

myelencephalon

Front 230

regions of the brain

Back 230

-cerebral hemispheres
-diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus)
-brainstem (mid brain, pons, medula)
-cerebellum

Front 231

83% of total brain mass

Back 231

cerebral hemisphere

Front 232

ridges on the surface seperated by grooves called sulci

Back 232

gyri

Front 233

deeper grooves separating brain regions (made up of longitudinal and transverse)

Back 233

fissures

Front 234

the fissure between hemispheres

Back 234

longitudinal

Front 235

fissure between cerbrum and cerebellum

Back 235

transverse fissure

Front 236

lobes of the brain

Back 236

-frontal
-parietal
-occipital
-temporal
-insula

Front 237

-seat of consciousnes, (preception, communication, memory, voluntary movements, etc.)
-gray matter consisting of cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, glia, and vessels
--NO fiber tracts
-2-4 mm thick but convolutions increase surface area so it creates 40% of brain mass

Back 237

cerebral cortex

Front 238

motor, sensory, and association, but no sensory or motor neurons

Back 238

the cerebral cortex

Front 239

generally control motor and sensory functions of opposite side

Back 239

the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

Front 240

motor areas of the cerebral cortex

Back 240

-primary motor cortex
-premotor cortex
-broca's area
-frontal eye field

Front 241

-in the frontal love of each side
-skeletal muscle control
-pyramidal cells: large, skeletal muscle control
-contralateral (right side controls left side of the body)

Back 241

primary motor cortex

Front 242

the theory that there is a left and right side of the brain and they function differently

Back 242

lateralization

Front 243

-controls learned repetative motor skills (dribbling, batting, piano)
-coordinates movements

Back 243

premotor cortex

Front 244

-present in only one hemisphere (usually the left)
-motor speech area that controls tongue, throat, and lips
-also likely to be important in planning what you are about to say

Back 244

brochas area

Front 245

controls voluntary eye movements

Back 245

frontal eye field

Front 246

sensory areas of the cerebral cortex

Back 246

-primary somatosensory cortex
-somatosensory association areas
-visual areas
-auditory areas
-olfactory cortex
-gustatory cortex

Front 247

-recieves information from somatic sensory receptors in skin and proprioceptors to identify body area stimulated
-contralateral (opposite sides)
-more sensative ares have a higher amount of sensory corxtex devoted to them.

Back 247

primary somatosensory cortex

Front 248

integrates adn analyzes somatic sensory inputs (temperature, pressure, size, etc.)

Back 248

somatosensory association area's

Front 249

visual areas of the cerebral cortex

Back 249

-primary visual cortex
-visual association areas

Front 250

largest cortical sensory area, from retinas

Back 250

primary visual cortex

Front 251

interprets and evaluates visual stimuli in light of past visual experiences so we recognize people, places, things

Back 251

visual association area

Front 252

auditory areas of the cerebral cortex

Back 252

-primary auditory cortex
-auditory association area

Front 253

-determines pitch, rythem, and loudness from cochlea

Back 253

primary auditory cortex

Front 254

perception of sound such as speech, music, thunder, noise, etc.

Back 254

auditory association area

Front 255

odois, sense of smell

Back 255

olfactory cortex

Front 256

perceives taste

Back 256

gustatroy cortex

Front 257

association areas of the cerebral cortex

Back 257

-prefrontal cortex
-general interpretaion area
-language areas
-visceral association area

Front 258

intellect and complex learning (cognition), personality

Back 258

prefrontal cortex

Front 259

only in one hemisphere, usually the left; storage of complex memory patterns associated with sensation

Back 259

general interpretation area

Front 260

conscious perception of visceral sensations (feeling full and needing to go to the bathroom)

Back 260

visceral association area

Front 261

__% of people are left brain dominant

Back 261

90

Front 262

nondominant hemisphere is usually involved in __

Back 262

intuition, emotion, art appreciation

Front 263

__% of population is right hemisphere dominent; many left handed, more males

Back 263

10

Front 264

__ may result in dexterity, ambidexterity, or things like dislexia due to cerebral confusion

Back 264

lack of cerebral dominance

Front 265

-provides communicaiton between cerebral areas, cerebrum, and lower CNS centers; primarily large mylinated fibers bundled into tracts

Back 265

cerebral white matter

Front 266

largest commisure superior to lateral ventricles

Back 266

corpus callosum

Front 267

-caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus palliidus
-receive inputs from cerebral cortex, other subcortical nuclei and on another
-cognition
-starting, stopping, and monitoring movements ordered by cortex (arm swinging while walking)
-inhibits uncessary movements

Back 267

basal nuclei

Front 268

parkinsons, huntingtons disease tourettes, OCD

Back 268

disordrs of basal nuclei

Front 269

made up of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

Back 269

diencephalon

Front 270

-80% of the dienchephalon
-afferent impulses enter fro all senses and body parts to synapse at least once in teh thalamus; many nuclei
-edits information and relays it into teh correct sensory cortex and association center

Back 270

thalamus

Front 271

made up of mammillary bodies and infundibulu
-is teh autonomic control center: blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, digestive motility
-emotional response and behavior: connects with cortical assocition areas and lower brain stem; the heart of the limbic system
-body temp regulation
-hunger
-thirst
-sleep-wake cycles
-endocrine control center

Back 271

hypothalamus

Front 272

on anteriour surface (bulges)-olfactory relay stations

Back 272

mammillary bodies

Front 273

connects pituitary gland and hypothalamus

Back 273

infundibulum

Front 274

contains the pineal gland and choriod plexus's

Back 274

epithalamus

Front 275

secretes melatonin, helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles, moods, also secretes seratonin

Back 275

pineal gland

Front 276

found in epithalamus, secretes CSF

Back 276

choriod plexus's

Front 277

made up of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata

Back 277

brainstem

Front 278

-cerebral aquaduct: connects 3rd and 4th ventricle
-substantia nigra-black due to melanin, precursor of dopmine

Back 278

midbrain

Front 279

disease associated with the neurotranmitter dopmine

Back 279

parkinsons disease

Front 280

-conduction tracts (pons+bridge)
-serveral crainial nerve pairs originate here
-pneumotaxic center: maintaing normal rythhm for breathing

Back 280

pons

Front 281

-pyramids: on ventral aspect; longitudinal ridges formed by tracts from motor cortex
decussation of pyramids: fibers cross over just above spinal cord-medulla junction creating contralateral brain affects
-crainial nerves here

Back 281

medulla oblongata

Front 282

-cardiovascular center
1. cardiac center: force and rate of contractoin
2. vasomotor center: blood pressure via smooth muscles in vessels
-repiratory centers: rate and depth of breathing with pons
-other centers induce vomit, hiccup, swallowing, cough, and sneeing

Back 282

the functions of the brainstem

Front 283

pleatlike gyri; convoluted

Back 283

folia (found in cerebellum)

Front 284

treelike apperance within cross section (found in cerebellum)

Back 284

arbor vitae

Front 285

function of the cerebellum

Back 285

balance and coordination

Front 286

-found in cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon
-emotional or affective brain (feelings
-smeels (links to memory)
-explains how feelings can override logic

Back 286

limbic system

Front 287

-found in central core of medulla, pons, and midbrain
-Reticular activating system (RAS): determines consciousness of cerebral cortex; diregards about 99% of sensory stimulii as unimportant)

Back 287

Reticular formation

Front 288

measures neuronal electrical activity in the brain

Back 288

EEG

Front 289

waves our brain gives off when we are relaxed

Back 289

alpha waves

Front 290

waves given off when we're concentrating

Back 290

beta waves

Front 291

waves given off by most childrens brains

Back 291

theta waves

Front 292

waves given off in deep sleep or when brain damage occurs

Back 292

delta waves

Front 293

abnormal brain waves

Back 293

seizure

Front 294

low O2 use and total unresponsiveness to stimulii

Back 294

coma

Front 295

partial consciousness that you can be aroused from

Back 295

sleep

Front 296

first 30-40 minutes of sleep; 4 stages

Back 296

NREM (non rapid eye movement ) sleep

Front 297

stage 4 NREM; delta waves-hard to wake up

Back 297

slow-wave sleep

Front 298

revert through stages to stage 1; alpha waves appear and dream occurs

Back 298

REM sleep

Front 299

you have REM sleep every __ min, each a little longer from 5-50 minutes

Back 299

90

Front 300

the inability to sleep

Back 300

insomnia

Front 301

storage and retrieval of information

Back 301

memory

Front 302

stages of memory

Back 302

1. short term: working memory
2. long term memory: unlimited capacity but declines with age

Front 303

-emotional state: norepinephrin involved
-rehearsal
-association: link to old memories
-automatic memory: not conscious

Back 303

ways to tranfer from from ST to LT memory

Front 304

memory based on names, dates, and numbers

Back 304

fact memory

Front 305

memory that is experience based

Back 305

nondeclaritive memory

Front 306

memory like brushing your teeth, playing a scale, dribbling the ball

Back 306

skill memory

Front 307

protections of the brain

Back 307

-menijies
-dural septa
-CSF
-blood brain barrier

Front 308

-cover and protect CNS
-contain CSF
-form skull partitions
-made up of dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

Back 308

meijies

Front 309

-double layered, most external membrane of brain
-periosteal layer attached to inner skull surface
-inner meningeal layer
dural sinuses collect venous blood to internal jugular veins

Back 309

dura mater

Front 310

-subdural space: between dura and arachnoid
-subarachnoid space: between arachnoid and pia mater; filled with CSF
-web-like
-arachnoid vili: knobblike projections of arachnoid through dura

Back 310

arachnoid mater

Front 311

thin layer clinging to brains surface and spinal cord

Back 311

pia mater

Front 312

-falx cerebri: into longitudinal fissure between cerebral hemispheres; ttaches to critstia galli
-falx cerebelli: forms midline partition along vermis
-tentorium cerebelli: into tranverse fissure

Back 312

dural septa

Front 313

-reduces brain weight by 97% and protects brain and spinal cord from trauma , nurishes
-less protien and more vitament C than plasma; ions differ
made by the choroid plexuses: hang from roof of each ventricle and form CSF

Back 313

CSF

Front 314

-maintains stable environment for the brain
-blood-borne substances in brain capillaries sepearted from EC space and neurons primarily by:
a. endothelian of capillar wall, tight junction , least permiable
b. other mechanisms
-is a selective barrier except to fat-soluble molecules (alcohol, nicotine, aspirn) difficult to treat diseases
-absent in areas such as the vomiting center, hypothalamus (so that it can monitor whats going on in the blood)

Back 314

Blood brain barrier

Front 315

slight injury but no permanent damage to the brain

Back 315

concussion

Front 316

tissue destruction in brain

Back 316

contusion

Front 317

blow results in bleeding of brain

Back 317

subdural or subarachnoid hemorrhage

Front 318

swelling of the brain following injury, steriods also cause this

Back 318

cerebral edema

Front 319

cerebrovascular accidents or CVA's

Back 319

strokes

Front 320

deprivation of blood to any tissue

Back 320

ischemia

Front 321

__% of those with massive CVA die in first attack

Back 321

80

Front 322

incomplete strokes; reversible; cerebral ischemia

Back 322

transischemic attacks (TIA's)

Front 323

-results in dementia
-one half of nursing home patients (other 50% CVA's)
-deficit of ACh and structural changes in the brain
-genetic

Back 323

alzheimers disease

Front 324

-degeneration of dopmine-releasing neurons of substatia nigra in teh brain stem
-basal nuclei become overactive
-tremors, forward-bent posture, shuffling gait, lack of expresssions
-treatment includes L-dopa and artificail dopamine agaonists
-fetal substantia nigra tissue transplants

Back 324

parkinsons disease

Front 325

-hereditary disease
-massive degeneration of teh basal nuclei and the cerebral cortex
-jerky movements
-opposite of parkinsons disease
-treated with dopamine blockers
-progressive and fatal within 15 years of onset

Back 325

huntingtons disease

Front 326

-sends information to and from the brain
-reflex center

Back 326

spinal cord

Front 327

fat and veins for padding in the spinal cord

Back 327

epidural space

Front 328

in the spinal cord, CSF is found in the __

Back 328

subarachnoid space

Front 329

contains the nerves that go to the arms

Back 329

cervical spinal chord enlargement

Front 330

contains nerves going to the legs

Back 330

lumbar spinal cord enlargement

Front 331

nerve roots at the exterior ends

Back 331

cauda equina

Front 332

infromation goes intro the spinal cord through the __ horns and leaves through the __

Back 332

dorsal, ventral

Front 333

destruction of anterior horn (motor neurons)
affects muscle control in one area of the body

Back 333

poliomyelitis

Front 334

damage to ventral root or anterior horn cells; lower motor neurons damaged

Back 334

flaccid paralysis

Front 335

upper motor neurons of primary motor cortex damaged with spinal motor intact, causing constant stimulation by spinal reflexes; muscles remain healthy but not voluntarily contractible

Back 335

spastic paralysis

Front 336

damage of the thorax-lumbar spinal cord

Back 336

paraplegia

Front 337

cervical spinal cord damage

Back 337

quadriplegia

Front 338

due to cord injury; paralysis permanent if function doesn't resume with in 48 hours

Back 338

spinal shock