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215 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the primary functin of the respiratory system is __
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gas exchange between the enviornment and teh vody (O2, CO2)
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what are the two processes that make up respiration?
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ventilation and diffusion
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the mechanical process of moving air in and out of the lungs
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ventilation
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random movement of molecules (gases) down their concentration gradient
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diffusion
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diffusion in the lungs is quick due to __ (2)
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large surface area in the lungs, short diffusion distance
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composed of a group of passages that filter air and transport it to the lungs
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respiratory system
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gas exchange occurs in microscopic air sacs called __
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alveoli
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transports, humidifies, and warms up air on its way to the lungs
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trachea
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a set of membranes called the __ enclose the lungs and provide lubrication for the lung to stretch and not generate friction with other tissues
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pleura
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the __ lines the outside of teh lungs
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visceral pleura
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the __ lines the thoracic walls and teh diaphragm
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parietal pleura
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the air passages in teh lungs are divided into teh __ and __ zones
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conducting, respiratory
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teh respiratory zone that passes air to teh respiraotyr zone. also funcitons to filter and humidify air
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conducting zone
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where gas exchange happes across millions of tiny alveoli.
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respiratory zone
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what in teh respiratory zone makes diffusion efficient?
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large surface area and two monolayers of cells
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__ cells produce surfactant in teh lungs
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type II alveolar cell
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makes water ie flat, reduces the surface tension of water
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surfactant
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movement of air from the environment into the lungs
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bulk flow
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movement of air in and out of teh lungs is cuased by differences in __
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pressure
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occurs due to the pressure in teh lungs (intrapulmonary) being below atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg)
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inspiration
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occurs due to the pressure in teh lungs exceeding atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg)
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expiration
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inspiration is active, it requires muscles such as the __
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diaphragm
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a dome shaped skeletal muscle that forces abdominal contents down and forward when it contracts and the ribs are lifted outward
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diaphragm
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what is the outcome of teh diaphragm contracting?
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reduced intrapleural pressure, lungs expand and reduce their pressure, inspiration
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expiration is __ during normal, quiet breathing (no muscles required)
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passive
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during __, chest walls are elastic and return to normal position after expansion
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chest walls
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during exercise, expiration is __ and the ribs are pulled down and inward cuasing __ and therefore __
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active, increased intrapulonary pressure, expiration
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V = __
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volume
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V (with a dot above it) = __
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volume per minute (rate)
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the movement of gas in and out of the lungs
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pulmonary ventilation
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a portion of teh volume of air inhaled remains in teh __ and doesn't participate in gas exchange
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conducting airways
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the volume of gas inspired that does reach teh gas exchange zone is referred to as __
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alveolar ventilation
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the portion of teh volume of air inhaled that reains in teh conducting airways and doesn't particiapte in gas exchange
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anatomical dead space
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lung volumes and capacities can be measured by __
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spirometry
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amount of air inhaled or exhaled in one breath during quiet breathing
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tidal volume
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amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can be inhaled with maximum effort
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inspiratory reserve volume
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amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort
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expiratory reserve volume
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amount of air remaining in teh lungs after maximum expiration that is the amount of air that can never be voluntarily exhaled
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residual volume
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amount of air that can be forecefullly exhaled following a maximum inspiration
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vital capacity
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maximum amount of air that can be inhaled following a normal expiration
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inspiratory capacity
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amount of air remaining in teh lungs following a normal expiration
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functinoal residual capacity
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maximum amount of air in teh lungs at the end of maximum inspiration
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total lung capacity
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patients with respiratory disease like COPD, emphysema cause __
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reduced lung function
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__ states that total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to teh sum of teh pressures that each gas would exert independently
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daltons law
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barometric pressure at sea level is __
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760 mm Hg
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the difference in __ drives diffusion of gas at the exchange zones
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PO2, PCO2
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different parts of teh lungs receive diffrential blood flow due to __ and therefore , more gas exchange can occure there
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gravity
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indicates matching of blood flow to ventilation
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ventilation/perfusion ration (V/P ratio)
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the ideal V/P ratio is __
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1.0
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the __ of the lungs is underperfused
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apex
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the __ of teh lungs is overperfused
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base
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teh V/P ratio can be altered with __ and __
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position and exercise
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three different ways CO2 is transported in the blood
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dissolved gasses in the plasma (exerts PP) (10%), bound to Hb (20%), transformed into HCO3- (70)
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the transformation of CO2 into HCO3- occurs in the __
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red blood cells
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about __% of oxygen in teh blood is bound ot hemoglobine which is a protein contained in RBC's
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99
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each molecule of Hb can carry __ O2 molecules
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4
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in the __ portion of the oxyHb dissociation curve shows that small change in PO2 result in a release of large amount of O2 from Hb
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steep portion
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in the __ portion of the oxyHb dissociation curve allows PO2 to oscillate without much change in %HbO2
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flat portion
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RBC's rely on __ to meet the cells energy demands (no nucleus or mitochondira)
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anaerobic glycolysis
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a by-product of RBC glycolysis is __, which can combine with hemoglobin and reduce hemoglobins affinity for O2
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2-3 DPG
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__ levels increase during exposure to altitude
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2-3 DPG
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at sea level, any rightward shift of teh oxyHb dissociation curve is not due to changes in __, but due to a degree of __ and ___
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2-3 DPG, acidosis, blood temperature
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__ is the muscles form of Hb and shuttles O2 from cell membrane to mitochondria in muscle cells
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myoglobin
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__ has a higher affinity for O2 than Hb, allowing for extractin of O2 from teh blood into the tissues (rather than binding to Hb)
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myoglobin
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__ = O2 reserve at the onset of exercise
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myoglobin
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replenishing to myoglobin-O2 stores after exercise contributes to __
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EPOC
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the carboinc acid equation is catalyzed by __
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carbonic anhydrase
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when PCO2 levels rise, its converted to __
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bicarbonate
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from rest-exercise, initially ventilation __ then __
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increases rapidly, slowly rises toward steady states
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during rest-exercise transition, PO2 and PCO2 are __
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not changed much
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during prolonged submaximal exercise in the heat, ventilation tends to drift __, there is __ change in PCO2
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upward, little
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higher ventilation when exercising in the heat is caused by __
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increased body temperature
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in incremental exercise there is a linear increase in ventiation up to about __% of VO2 max. after that point, there is an __
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50-75, exponential increase
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the inflectin point where ventilation increases exponentially
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ventilatory threshold
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reduced oxygen in the blood
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hypoxemia
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causes of hypoxemia in elite atheltes (2)
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V/P mismatch, diffusion limitations due to reduced time RBC's have in pulonary capilaries due to high cardiac outputs
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at low to moderate intensity exercise, the pulmonary system is __
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not a limitation
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at maximal exercise a healthy individual at sea level's pulmonary system is __
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not a limitation
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at maximal exercise in elite endruance athletes teh pulmonary system __
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may be limiting performance due to respiratory muscle fatigue
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following training, ventilation is __ at the same workrate
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lower
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lower ventilation at the same workrate following training may be cuased by __ which causes __
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lower pH levels, less feedback to stimulate breathing
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the respiratory control center receives __ and __ input
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neural and humoral
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two kinds of humoral chemoreceptors
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central and peripheral
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located in teh medulla, PCO2 and H+ concentration in cerebrospinal fluid
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central chemoreceptors
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found int eh aortic and carotid bodies, detect PO2, PCO2, H+ and K+ in the blood
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peripheral chemoreceptors
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neural imput from the __ or __ regulate respiratory rate
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motor cortex or skeletal muscle
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during sumbaximal exercise, there is a linear increase in ventilation due to __, __, and __
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central command, humoral chemoreceptors, and neural feedback
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during heavy exercise, there is an exponential rise in ventilation above __ and an increase in blood __
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ventilatory threshold, H+
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a molecule or an ion that can contribute a hydrogen ion (H+) into a solution
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acid
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a molecule or an ion that will combine with H+ to remove them from a solution
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base
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blood ph of __ is normal
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7.4
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blood ph of __ is acidosis
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<7.4
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blood ph of __ is alkalosis
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>7.4
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acidic environment interfere with muscle contraction because __
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H+ competes with CA2+
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high intensity results in a marked __ in muscle pH
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decrease
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three important contibutors to muscle pH
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production of CO2, production of lactate, ATP breakdown
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muscle pH decreases in part because of the productin of CO2 as an end prodcut of __
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oxidation of CHO, fats, and protiens
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muscle pH decreases in part because of the production of lactate. this is arguable becuase __
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looking at the equation of lactate production, formation of lacate doesn't change the amont of acid that was in teh muscle beforehand
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at around lactate threshold (60-75% of VO2 max) there is a drop in __ and__
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ph, HCO3-
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muscle pH decreases in part because of ATP production. this is because the breakdown of ATP during muscle contraction produces __
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H+
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3 different kind of buffer systems
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intracellular and blood buffres, the lungs, the kindeys
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where acid-base buffer systems combine with any acid or base and thereby prevent excessive changes pH
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intracellular and blood buffers
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three different kinds of intracellular and blood buffers
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bicarbonate, phosphate, and ammonia buffers
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the respiratory system controls the rate of __ removal from teh body fluids, and regulates H+ towards normal
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CO2
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the kidneys exrete either an acid or alkaline __ to help to readjust the H+ back to normal
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urine
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two renal mechanisms in acid base balance
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reabsorbing filtered HCO2-, secreting/excreting fixed H+ (as H+ or NH4+)
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secretion of H+ by either renal mechanism is accompanied by synthesis and reabsoption of new __ to replenish sotres that were used to buffer H+
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HCO3-
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pulmonary mechanism in acid base balance (4 steps)
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1. increasing ventilation 2. H20+CO2 <-> H2CO3 3 when CO2 increases, pH decreases 4. increased ventilation cmobats the rise in CO2 during exercise
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the first response to acid base disurbance of blood pH is __
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cellular or blood buffering
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teh second response to acid base disturbance of blood pH is __
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compensation by kidneys and the lungs
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if acid base disturbance is metabolic (change is HCO3-) then teh compensation is done by the __
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lungs
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if the acid base disturbance is respiratory (hypo/hyperventilation) then teh compensation is done by teh __
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kidneys
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the two circuits of the heart
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pulmonary and systematic
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teh outer layer of the heart, made up of serous membrane including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. serves as lubricative outer covering of the heart
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epicardium
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the middle layer of the heart made of cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissues and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. Provides muscular contractions that eject blood from teh heart chambers
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myocardium
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the inner layer of teh heart made of endothelial tissue and a thick subendothelial layer of elastic collagenous fibers. serves as protective inner lining of the chambers and valves
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endocardium
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inner layer of a blood vessel, made of endothelium that lines the lumen of all vessels
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tunica intima
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middle layer of the blood vessels, made of smooth muscle and elastic fibers
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tunica media
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outer layer of teh blood vessels, made of collagen fibers
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tunica adventitia
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the volume of blood pumped fromt eh ventricles in one minute
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cardiac output (Q)
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Q = __
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SV x HR
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the volume of blood pumped out of the ventircle during systole
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stroke volume
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SV = __
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end diastolic volume - end systolic volume
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electrical signals in the heart flow from:
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SA node -> AV node -> interventricular septum -> R/L bundle branches -> purkinje fibers -> ventricular walls
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the heart beats at an intrinsic rate of __ bpm
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100
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extrinisc control of teh heart by __ nervous systems can __ heart rate
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sympathetic/parasympathetic; Increase/decrease
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the atria recieve __ and __ nerves
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parasympathetic adn sympathetic nerves
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the ventricles recive __ nerves
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sympathetic
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sympathetic nerves release __ causing tachycardia (increase in HR) and increased contractability of the heart
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norepinephrine
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__ nerves release acetylcholine causing bradycardia (slowing of the heart)
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parasympathetic (vagal)
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__ parasympathetic acitivty or __ sympathetic nerve acitivty = decreased HR
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increased, decreased
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__ sympathetic acitivty or __ parasympathetic nerve activity = Increased HR
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increased, decreased
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during the P wave of an EKG, teh __
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atria deplolarize
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during the QRS EKG, the _
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venticles depolarize
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during the T wave of an EKG, the __
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ventricles repolarize
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measures the pressure int eh arteries during venticular contraction
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systole
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measures the pressure in teh arteries during venticular relaxation
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diastole
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at rest, __ BP takes the longest amount of time
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diastole
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at exercise, __ BP markedly decrease
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diastole
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7 stages of teh cardiac cycle:
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1. late diastole: both sets of chambers relaxed. passive ventricular filling
2. atrial systole: atrial contraction forces a smlal amount of blood into ventricles 3. end diastolic volume: maximal amount of blood in venticles occurs at the end of ventricular relaxation 4. isovolumic ventricular contraction: first phase of venticular contraction pushes AV valves closed but does not cuase enough pressure to open semilunar valves 5. ventricular ejacultation: as venticular pressure rises and exceeds pressure in the arteries, the semilunar valves open and blood is ejected 6. end systolic volume: minimum amount of blood in ventricles is reached 7. isovlumic ventricular relaxation: as ventricles relax pressure in ventricles drops, blood flows back into cups of semilunar valves and snaps them closed |
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normal end diastolic volume is __
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135 ml
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normal end systolic volume is __
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65 ml
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what is normal blood pressure?
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120/80 mm Hg
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what is hypertensive blood pressure
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greater than or equal to 140/90 mm Hg
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average pressure in the arteries
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Mean Arterial Pressure
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MAP = __
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2/3 systolic + 1/3 diastolic; Cardiac output x total peripheral resistance
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what is a normal MAP?
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100-110
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blood pressure __ as it goes from the aorta to the vena cava
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decreases
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5 factors influencing BP
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increase in blood volume, HR, SV, viscosity, and peripheral resistance
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three primary cardiovascular adjustments during exercise
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increased Q, redistribution of increased Q, increased venous return to the heart
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during exercise, what happens to HR?
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vagal (parasympathetic) withdrawal leads to increase in HR up to 100 bpm; activation of sympathetic nerves follows to increase HR above 100 bpm
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cardiac sympathetic nervous actiity is __
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intensity dependnet
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average HR can range from __ but usually seta around __
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28-100, 60-80
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highest HR value one can achieve in an an all out effort to the opint of exhaustion
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maximum heart rate
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Maximum HR = __
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220- age in years
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SV increases with increaseing work up to intensities of __ of VO2 max
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40-60%
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resting SV is __ ml/beat in healthy adults
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60-120
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the bodies maximum caridac output is __
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40 L/min
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at rest, about __% of Q goes to muscles
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20
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during exhaustive exercise, close to __% of Q is delivered to working muscle with blood being redirected away form incative organs
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90
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blood supply to the heart and brain during exercise __
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remain constant
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nitric oxide, prostaglandins, adenosine, ATP, K+, H+, increased CO2, decreased O2, and osmolarity are all __
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vasodilators and sympatholysis
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2 ways that venous return occurs
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venoconstirction, muscle and respiratory pumps
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increased sympathetic activity to the skin and splanchnic veins mediates__ with consequent displacement of blood toward the heart
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active venoconstriction
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engagement of the "milking" action of teh veins in teh contracting skeletal muscle is called __ and teh great veins int eh thoracic cavity called __ by augmented ventilatory frequency and depth
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skeletal muscle group, respiratory pump
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central command __ teh CV control center
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feeds forward
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__, __ , and __ are all feedback mechanisms to teh CV control center
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baraorecptors in teh aorta and carotid arteries chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors in teh skeletal muscles
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drives the feed forward mechanism at teh onset of exercise via the __which sends a signal to activate the sympathetic nervous system to prepare for exercise
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central command, mortor cortex
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two different feedback mechanisms to regulate blood pressure, heart rate, and blood flow distibution
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baroreflex, exercise pressor reflex
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sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries that sense and reflexively decrease HR when pressure increases
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baroreflex
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the __ is reset during exercise to allow for elevation of HR to meet high Q demands
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baroreflex
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when the contraction of skeletal muscle and metabolists activate sensory nerves to affect blood pressure
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exercise pressor reflex
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type __ exercise pressor reflex fibers are mechanosensitive
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III
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type __ exercise pressor reflex fibers are metabosensitive
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IV
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skin vs core tempurature ideally varies around __ degrees celcius
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4
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what is the goal of temperature regulation?
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maintain constant core tempurature
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two ways heat is evaporated
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circulatory system tranporst from muscles to skin, increased respiration removes heat
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heat is transferred from an area of __ pressure to __ pressure (vapor pressure) from __ on skin to air
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high, low, water
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the amount of heat that is transferred via vapor pressure depends on teh __
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pressure gradient from skin to air
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when teh vapor pressure gradient is __, there is little evaporation (less heat loss during exercise)
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small
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when the vapor pressure gradient is __, exercise isn't limited due to heat gain in teh body
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larger
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what is the integration center for the bodies thermostat?
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hypothalamus
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in a hot/humid temperature, core temp will __, while in a cool enviornment it will __
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increase steadily, increase, then plataeu
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in a hot/humid temperature, sweat rate will __, while in a cool enviornment it will __
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increase, plateau, then increase/ increase but then plateau (much lower)
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before acclimation, heart rate will be __ than before acclimation
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higher
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after acclimation, core temp will be __ than before acclimation
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higher
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8 influences of heat injury
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acclimatization, fitness, clothing, environmental humidity, metabolic rate, environmental temp, wind, hydration
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fainting or excessive loss of strength because of excessive heat
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heat syncope
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spasmodic muscular contractions caused by exertion in extreme heat
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heat cramps
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collapse with or without loss of consciousness suffered in conditions of heat and high humidity, largely resulting from teh loss of fluid and salt by sweating
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heat exhaustion
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final stage of heat exhuastion in which the thermoregulatory system shuts down to sonserve depletaed fluid levesl
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heatstroke
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insulating factors with expsure to cold (3)
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subcutaneous fat, clothing, wet vs dry
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environmental facotrs with exposure to cold (4)
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temp, waters vs air, water-vapor pressure, wind
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descriptive characteristics for exposure to cold (2)
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age, gender
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why is there very little drop in PO2 from alveolar air to arterial blood?
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teh efficiency of gas exchange
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__, __, and __ cause a shift of the PaO2 graph to the right
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decreased pH, increaed DPG, increased temp
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__, __, and __ causes a shift to the left of the PaO2 graph
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increased pH, decreased DPG, decreased temp
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headach, nausea, and fatigue, need to stop and acclimatize or "come donw", and a risk for HAPE or HACE are symptoms of __
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acute mountain sickness
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responds to low PaO2 (below 60 mm Hg)
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peripheral chemoreflex
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peripheral chemoreflex __ the discharge frequency of the receptors to the respiratory cener of teh brainstem, also __ ventilation
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increases, increases
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altitude causes elevated __ (due to chemoreceptor response), __ lung capacity, __ pulmonary diffusion capacity by increaseing the surface area for diffusion and decreasing the thickness of pulmonary blood gas interface
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venilation, increased, increased
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hypoxia resonse signals an __ in HR
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increase
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increased __ has no neurogenic regulation of pulmonary resistance, increased by local mechanism in alveoli due to low PO2, diverts blood away from poorly ventilated areas of teh lung by locally increasing vascular resistance; blood is directed to alveoli with greater PO2; leads to pulmonary edema
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pulmonary pressure
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improves O2 carrying capacity of teh blood, increase in hematocrit
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increased RBC
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increased RBC do not always equal aerobic capacity because increased __ leads to increased peripheral resistance
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viscosity
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helps to unload O2 from RBC to tissues (enhances O2 delivery) and miximize capillary tissue PO2 difference
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increased 2,3 DPG
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acid/base balance graph for altitude
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hypoxia -> (chemoreceptor) increased ventilation and HR ->incrased blood PO2 but decreased PCO2=higher blood pH ->inhibits respiratory ceners and HR (dizzy phase) ->increased PCo2 decreased pH
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kindeys conserve __ to normalize pH
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H+
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central chemoreceptors adapt to decreased PCO2 so that hypoxic stimulation to stimulate increased ventilation/HR progressively increases for __
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hours/days
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increase in pH shifts teh O2 saturation curve to teh __ to increase O2 affinity
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let
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maximum attainable HR and CO __ as altitude increases
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decrease
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increased blood viscosity due to increased RBC's
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plycythemia
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__ decreases O2 loading at the lungs
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2,3 DPG
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pulmonary vasocontriction cna cuase __
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pulmonary edema
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elevated pulmonary arterial pressure causes __
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right heart hypertorphy (congestive heart failure)
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