Anatomy Semester 1 Final

Front 1

provides the CNS with a link to the world. Includes sensory receptors, nerves, ganglia and motor endings

Back 1

Peripheral Nervous System

Front 2

respond to stimuli or environmental changes, classified by location, stimulus, and complexity.

Back 2

sensory receptors

Front 3

awareness to stimuli

Back 3

sensation

Front 4

interpret the meaning of stimulus

Back 4

perception

Front 5

location classification of sensory receptors

Back 5

-exteroreceptors
-interoceptors
-proprioceptors

Front 6

sensory receptors that:
-respond to external stimuli
-near surface to detect light touch, pressure, pain, and temp
-special senses

Back 6

Exteroceptors

Front 7

sensory receptors that:
-respond to internal stimuli form organs and vessels
-monitor chemical changes, stretching, temperature

Back 7

Interoceptors (visceroceptors)

Front 8

sensory receptors that:
-respond to internal stimuli
-in skeletal muscle, tendons, joints, and ligaments and connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles
-monitor degree of stretch to advice brain of body movements

Back 8

proprioceptors

Front 9

stimulus type classification of sensory receptors:

Back 9

-mechanoreceptors (touch, pressure)
-thermoreceptors (temp changes)
-photoreceptors (light energy)
-cheoreceptors (chemicals in solution)
-nociceptors (pain)

Front 10

structural complexity classification of sensory receptors:

Back 10

-simple
-complex

Front 11

sensory receptors that:
-have modified dendritic endings
-are in skin, mucous membranes, muscles, and connective tissues
-monitor general sensory info

Back 11

simple sensory receptors

Front 12

sensory receptors that:
-sense organs or localized collections of different cell types working together
-make up special sense organs and general senses

Back 12

complex sensory receptors

Front 13

-most abundant in epithelial and connective tissues
-pain and temp changes

Back 13

free dendritic endings

Front 14

a dendritic ending + disc-shaped epidermal cells; light touch deep in epidermis

Back 14

merkel discs

Front 15

entwine in hair follicles; light touch (hair bending)

Back 15

root hair plexuses

Front 16

enclosed in connective tissue capsule; mechanoreceptors

Back 16

encapsulated dendritic endings

Front 17

just below epidermis; dendrites surrounded by schwann cells; light touch

Back 17

meissner's corpuscles

Front 18

variation of meissenr's corpuscles in mucous membranes

Back 18

krause's end bulbs

Front 19

deep in dermis and subcutaneous tissue; deep pressure, especially vibration. ("on-off" pressure) surrounded by up to 60 layers of schwan cells

Back 19

pacinian corpuscles

Front 20

found in dermis, subcutaneous tissue and joint capsules; similar to golgi tendon organs; respond to continuous pressure.

Back 20

ruffini's corpuscles

Front 21

proprioceptors in skeletal muscle; detect muscle stretch and initiates stretch reflex (knee jerk)

Back 21

muscle spindles (neuromuscular spindles)

Front 22

tendon proprioceptors; inhibit contraction of muscle

Back 22

golgi tendon organ

Front 23

why do golgi tendon organs inhibit contraction of muscles?

Back 23

they help monitor positions of joints

Front 24

proprioceptors monitoring stretch in articular capsule of synovial jints; we are aware of joint movements due to these

Back 24

joint kinesthetic receptors

Front 25

-energy of stimulus converted (transduced) into electrical event due to changes in membrane permeability of receptor region causing a graded receptor potential (like an EPSP)
-stimulus strength encoded in frequency of impulse transmission so CNS can determine intensity

Back 25

sensory receptor potentials

Front 26

receptor potentials decrease in some sensory receptors when stimulus is constent

Back 26

adaptation

Front 27

which senses adapt the fastest?

Back 27

pressure, touch, and smell

Front 28

bundles of peripheral axons enclosed by connective tissue

Back 28

nerve

Front 29

surrounds each axon; encloses myelin and/or neurilemma

Back 29

endonurium

Front 30

a bundle of nerve fiber

Back 30

fascicle

Front 31

the membrane around each fascicle

Back 31

perinurium

Front 32

membrane around the whole nerve

Back 32

epineurium

Front 33

contain sensory and motor fibers to and from CNS; includes most nerves

Back 33

mixed nerves

Front 34

brings sensory information to the CNS

Back 34

sensory (afferent) nerves

Front 35

bring information away from the CNS

Back 35

motor (efferent) nerves

Front 36

-somatic are afferent and efferent
-visceral are afferent and efferent

Back 36

mixed nerves

Front 37

collections of neuron cell bodies associated with nerves in the PNS

Back 37

ganglia

Front 38

is nerve regeneration good or poor?

Back 38

poor

Front 39

__ neurons cannot reduce

Back 39

mature

Front 40

damaged or compressed axons or peripheral nerves can ____

Back 40

regenerate

Front 41

-occurs as points distal to damage of axon cannot receive nutrients and disintegrate
-schwann cells and macrophages clean up debris

Back 41

wallerian degeneration

Front 42

schwann cells survive and proliferate due to ____ form the macrophages

Back 42

mitosis-stimulating chemicals

Front 43

___ guide regenerating axon sprouts across gaps

Back 43

schwann cells

Front 44

axons regenerate the a rate of __ per day; the greater the distance, the less chance of recovery due to adjacent tissues protruding into gaps

Back 44

1-5 mm

Front 45

even though nerves can regenerate they are __

Back 45

NEVER exactly the same

Front 46

CNS fibers never regenerate more than 1 mm because:

Back 46

-fewer macrophages, so clean up is slow
-oligodendrocytes in damaged area die and cannot guide regrowth
-myelin sheaths of nearby axons contain growth inhibitors

Front 47

__ bridge implants (fetal), activated macrophage transplants, antibodies to growth inhibitors, addition of growth factor may stimulate mature neurons to divide

Back 47

astrocyte

Front 48

what innervates the somatic fibers?

Back 48

somatic fibers

Front 49

-knob-like swellings of autonomic fibers at smooth and cardiac muscle
-mitochondria and synaptic vesicles (ACh or NE)
-cleft wider and therefore response slower

Back 49

varicosities

Front 50

cranial nerves

Back 50

I-Olfactory nerve
II-Optic
III-Oculomotor
IV-trochlear
V-trigeminal
VI-abducens
VII-Facial
VIII-auditory (vestibulocochlear)
IX-glossopharyngeal
X-vagus

Front 51

-cranial nerve responsible for sense of smell
-fivers run through the cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone

Back 51

Olfactory (I)

Front 52

-responsible for sense of vision

Back 52

Optic (II)

Front 53

where the optic nerves converge; SOME fibers cross over

Back 53

optic chiasma

Front 54

-primarily a motor nerve
-responsible for eye movement and proprioception (superior oblique muscle)

Back 54

trochlear (IV)

Front 55

-a mixed nerve; largest cranial nerve; pons to face
-ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular divisions
-sensory from the face
-responsible for motor for chewing

Back 55

Trigeminal (V)

Front 56

inflammation of the trigeminal nerve

Back 56

trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux)

Front 57

-primarily motor
-responsible for extrinsic eye muscle that abducts the eyeball

Back 57

abducens (VI)

Front 58

-a mixed nerve
-has 5 branches (temporal, zygomatic, buccal, manndibular, and cervical)
-responsible for facial expressions, propioception, taste, tears

Back 58

facial (VII)

Front 59

paralysis of facial virus on one side caused by herpes virus

Back 59

bell's palsy

Front 60

what does bells palsy look like?

Back 60

the face droops on one side

Front 61

-sensory
-responsible for hearing and balance

Back 61

auditory (VIII) vestbulocochlear

Front 62

-mixed nerve
-controls the tongue and pharynx
-sensory for blood gases, regulate breathing and blood pressure

Back 62

glossopharyngeal (IX)

Front 63

-a mixed nerve
-only cranial nerve to thorax and abdomen
-most motor fibers are parasympathetic efferentschest, lungs, abdominal organs
-sensory tolaynyx and pharynx (speech and swallowing)
-you cannot live if you lose this nerve!!!

Back 63

Vagus (X)

Front 64

-primarily motor
-joins with vagal fibers-motor to larynx, pharynx and soft palate; motor to trapezius and sternocleidomastoid

Back 64

accessory (XI)

Front 65

-primarily motor
-somatic fibers to tongue muscles, proprioceptor fibers for tongue movements in mixing food, swallowing, and speech

Back 65

hypoglossal (XII)

Front 66

there are __ pairs of mixed nerves that make up the spinal nerves

Back 66

31

Front 67

sensory fibers from peripheral receptors

Back 67

dorsal root

Front 68

motor fibers to skeletal muscles

Back 68

ventral root

Front 69

length of root increases toward inferior end of spinal cord; exits vertebral column

Back 69

cauda equina

Front 70

spinal nerves are only 12 cm long and then divide into rami; supplies anterior trunk and limbs

Back 70

ventral ramus

Front 71

supplies the posterior trunk

Back 71

dorsal ramus

Front 72

reenters vetebral canal to innervate meninges and blood vessels there

Back 72

meningeal branch

Front 73

joined to base of ventral rami of spinal nerves in thoracic region; contain autonomic fibers

Back 73

rami communicantes

Front 74

roots form __ and are sensory or motor

Back 74

spinal nerves

Front 75

rami are distal to and are lateral branches of spinal nerves and are __.

Back 75

mixed (sensory and motor)

Front 76

-all spinal nerves except thoracic have ventral (not dorsal) rami that branch and join one another lateral to teh vetebral column
-cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral
-serve the limbs

Back 76

plexuses

Front 77

fibers of ventral rami cross over crisscross and each branch contains fibers from several spinal nerves; carried to body periphery via several different routs or branches. what does this do?

Back 77

prevents paralysis if one spinal segment or root damaged

Front 78

-deep in neck under sternocleidomastoid; formed by ventral rami of upper four cervical nerves

Back 78

cervical plexus

Front 79

supply skin only; sensory and motor nerves

Back 79

cutaneous nerves

Front 80

-gets most important of cervical plexus
-most input from C3 and C4
-supplies sensory fibers to diaphragm
-if this area is damaged, repiratory arrest and ventilator neded

Back 80

phrenic nerve

Front 81

irritation of this nerve causes hiccups (diaphragm spasms)

Back 81

phrenic nerve

Front 82

-nerves of the upper limb; palpable superior to clavicle at lateral border of sternoclidomastoid
-ventral rami of C5-C8 and most of T1

Back 82

brachial plexus

Front 83

five total; unite to form upper, middle, lower, trunks that divide into anterior and posterior divisions

Back 83

roots

Front 84

innervates the deltoid and teres minor, skin and joint of shoulder

Back 84

axillary nerve

Front 85

major lateral cord branch supplying motor fibers to arm flexors and cutaneous sensation of lateral forearm

Back 85

musculocutaneous nerve

Front 86

innervates skins and flexor muscles of the brachial plexus

Back 86

median nerve

Front 87

makes up the "funny bone"

Back 87

ulnar nerve

Front 88

largest branch of the brachial plexus; innervates the posterior skin of arm and extensor muscles of upper arm

Back 88

radial nerve

Front 89

-first four lumbar spinal nerves; lies in psoas major

Back 89

lumbar plexus

Front 90

largest nerve in the lumbar plexus, runs to thigh and divides; thigh flexors and knee extensors

Back 90

femoral nerve

Front 91

innervates adductor muscles of the leg

Back 91

obturator nerve

Front 92

-arises from spinal nerves L4-S4 caudal to lumbar plexus
-dozen named branches to buttocks and lower limb; perineum

Back 92

sacral plexus

Front 93

longest and thickest body nerve; innervates gluetus maximus to posterior thigh; hamstrings and part of adductor magnus

Back 93

sciatic nerve

Front 94

innervates the anterior, lower leg. breaks off into sural and plantar nerve

Back 94

tibial nerve

Front 95

innervates buttocks and tensor fascia latae

Back 95

superior and inferior gluteal nerves

Front 96

nerve serving muscle that produces movement of joint innervates joint and skin

Back 96

hilton's law

Front 97

area of skin innervated by the cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve; all spinal nerves except c1 participate with some overlap

Back 97

dermatome

Front 98

-a rapid, predictable motor response to a stimulus
-many are unlearned and involuntary
-many others are learned (aquired) reflex responses (driving, sports, etc.)

Back 98

reflex

Front 99

components of the reflex arc

Back 99

-receptor
-sensory neuron
-integration center
-motor neuron
-effector

Front 100

a reflex made up of one sensor neuron and one motor neuron

Back 100

monosynaptic reflex

Front 101

a reflex made up of at most three neurons

Back 101

plysynaptic reflex

Front 102

a reflex that affects the skeletal muscle

Back 102

somatic reflex

Front 103

a reflex that affects the viscera

Back 103

autonomic reflex

Front 104

resistance to stretch at rest

Back 104

tone

Front 105

the structures of spinal reflexes

Back 105

-muscle spindles
-golgi tendon organs

Front 106

-ipsilateral withdarawl and contralateral enxtensor reflex
-occurs when you step on something painful
-helps maintain balance

Back 106

crossed extensor reflex

Front 107

-elicited by gentle cutaneous stimulation

Back 107

superficial reflexes

Front 108

tests L4 to S2 and indirectly determines if corticospinal tracts are working; elicited by blunt object moved downward on lateral sole of foot and causes downward flexion of toes

Back 108

plantar reflex

Front 109

(when the great toe dorsiflexes and others fan) (in infants) if primary motor cortex or corticospinal tract is damaged; occurs in infants up to one year.

Back 109

babinskis sign

Front 110

stroking skin around umbilicus may induce contraction of abdominal muscles; checks the integrity of T8-T12

Back 110

abdominal reflexes

Front 111

division of the peripheral nervous system, efferent (motor) division, consisting of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

Back 111

autonomic nervous system

Front 112

smooth and cardiac muscles and glands (viscera) skeletal muscles (somatic)

Back 112

effectors

Front 113

somatic motor neuron cell bodies in CNS and are ___.

Back 113

type A (large, myelinated) fibers

Front 114

found in the CNS preganglionic axon synapses with secondmotor neuron

Back 114

preganglionic neurons

Front 115

second in the chain; synapse is in autonomic ganglion outside the CNS; postganglionic axon to effector

Back 115

postganglionic neurons

Front 116

ANS is __ then CNS

Back 116

slower

Front 117

there are __ ganglia of the motor neurons in the somatic division

Back 117

NO

Front 118

all somatic neurons release __ on skeletal muscle fibers

Back 118

Ach

Front 119

postganglionic ANS fibers release __

Back 119

NE (sympathetic) and Ach (parasympathetic)

Front 120

NE and ACh may be __or __ depending on target tissue receptors

Back 120

excitatory or inhibitory

Front 121

division of the peripheral nervous system, efferent (motor) division, consisting of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

Back 121

autonomic nervous system

Front 122

smooth and cardiac muscles and glands (viscera) skeletal muscles (somatic)

Back 122

effectors

Front 123

somatic motor neuron cell bodies in CNS and are ___.

Back 123

type A (large, myelinated) fibers

Front 124

found in the CNS preganglionic axon synapses with secondmotor neuron

Back 124

preganglionic neurons

Front 125

second in the chain; synapse is in autonomic ganglion outside the CNS; postganglionic axon to effector

Back 125

postganglionic neurons

Front 126

ANS is __ then CNS

Back 126

slower

Front 127

there are __ ganglia of the motor neurons in the somatic division

Back 127

NO

Front 128

all somatic neurons release __ on skeletal muscle fibers

Back 128

Ach

Front 129

postganglionic ANS fibers release __

Back 129

NE (sympathetic) and Ach (parasympathetic)

Front 130

NE and ACh may be __or __ depending on target tissue receptors

Back 130

excitatory or inhibitory

Front 131

many spinal and many cranial nerves contain both ___.

Back 131

somatic and autonomic nerves

Front 132

generally innervate same organs and have opposite effects on each (dual innervation)

Back 132

parasympathetic and sympathetic

Front 133

-resting and digestive system
-minimizes body energy uses and directs housekeeping activities (digestion, etc.)

Back 133

role of parasympathetic division

Front 134

fight or flight response, releases adrenaline

Back 134

sympathetic

Front 135

largest nerve vagus nerver
"resting" and digestion

Back 135

parasympathetic

Front 136

-fight or flight system
-increased heart rate and breathing rate and depth
-visceral blood vessels constrict and vessels of heart and muscle dilate
-bronchioles dilate (more O2)
-liver releases glucose (more energy)
-GI tract and urinary tract motility decrease

Back 136

sympathetic

Front 137

site of origin of parasympathetic and sympathetic differ
-lengths of pre-and postganglionic fibers
-location of ganglia

Back 137

ANS

Front 138

-fibers from brain stem and sacral region
-preganglionic axons extend from CNS nearly to effector
-terminal or intramural ganglia close to or in target organ

Back 138

parasympathetic (craniosacral) division

Front 139

makes pupils constrict, bulging of lenses, moves the eyes

Back 139

oculomotor nerves (III)

Front 140

control glandular secretions; lacrimal glands, submandibular and sublingual glands

Back 140

facial nerves (VII)

Front 141

control the parotid salivary glands behind ears, only preganglionic fibers; postganglionic fibers hitchhike with trigeminal nerves

Back 141

glossopharyngeal (IX)

Front 142

-90% of all preganglionic parasympathetic fibers
-fibers to serve virtually every organ

Back 142

vagus nerves (X)

Front 143

-S2-S4
-serves distal half of large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters and reproductive organs

Back 143

sacral outflow

Front 144

preganglionic sympathetic fibers leave ventral horn, pass through this and enter paravertebral chain ganglia that form part of teh sympathetic trunk (chain)

Back 144

white ramus communicans

Front 145

serve blood vessels of organs

Back 145

splanchnic nerves

Front 146

serve abdominopelvic viscera; generally inhibit abdominal organs

Back 146

abdominal aortic plexus

Front 147

secrete NE and E in blood (rush of adrenaline)

Back 147

pathways with adrenal medulla synapses

Front 148

detect chemical changes, stretch, irritation of organs; first link in autonomic reflex

Back 148

visceral sensory neurons

Front 149

same components as somatic, but two-neuron motor chain

Back 149

visceral reflex arcs

Front 150

visceral pain afferents travel along same pathways as somatic pain fibers; brain interprets pain as coming from more common somatic pathway

Back 150

referred pain

Front 151

all preganglionic fibers and all parasympathetic postgnaglionic axons secrete Ach

Back 151

Cholinergic fibers

Front 152

most sympathetic postganglionic axons release NE; exceptions are sweat glands and some vessels in skeletal muscles that secrete Ach

Back 152

adrenergic fibers

Front 153

motor end plates (somatic) and adrenal medulla Ach is always stimulatory

Back 153

nicotinic receptors

Front 154

all effector cells stimulated by cholinergic fibers (para and a few sympathetic); Ach is stimulatory or inhibitory

Back 154

muscarinic receptors

Front 155

adrenergic receptors

Back 155

-alpha
-beta

Front 156

adrenergic receptor where NE is stimulatory

Back 156

alpha receptors

Front 157

adrenergic receptor wehre NE generally is inhibitory; eceptions include heart (stimulates)

Back 157

Beta receptors

Front 158

organs have predominately one type of adrenergric receptors because?

Back 158

they either stimulate or inhibit organs

Front 159

block or stimulate selected organs by nowing type of receptors

Back 159

drugs

Front 160

anticholinergic; blocks parasympathetic effects; (salivation, respiration, secretions, dilates pupils)

Back 160

atropine

Front 161

treatment of myathenia gravis; inhibits AChE

Back 161

neostigmine

Front 162

drugs like acebutolol, metoprolol. reduce heart rate and prevent arrythmias (taken by anxious people)

Back 162

beta-blockers

Front 163

binds to beta receptors adrenergic receptors to enhance vasodilaion

Back 163

albuterol

Front 164

most organs are innervated by both types of nerves

Back 164

dual innervation

Front 165

interactions of the heart, respiratory and GI tract

Back 165

antagonistic interactions

Front 166

continual partial contraction of most vessels due to sympathetic innervation; sympathetic controls blood pressure, even at rest

Back 166

sympathetic (vasomotor) tone

Front 167

dominates heart and smooth muscle of digestive and urinary tracts; most glands (except adenal and sweat) actibated by parasympathetic (sympathetic can override during stress)

Back 167

parasympathetic tone

Front 168

external genitalia; parasympathetic for erections and sympathetic for ejactulation

Back 168

cooperatibe effects

Front 169

arrecor pili, vesseldilation, sweat gland activation when hot and vice versa

Back 169

thermoregulatry responses to heat

Front 170

promotes release of renin from kidneys

Back 170

promotes increased blood pressure

Front 171

-increased metabolic rate of cells
-increased blood glucose level
-mobilization of fats for fuel
-increased mental awareness via RAS of brain stem
-skeletal muscles contract more strongly and quickly

Back 171

metabolic effects via adrenal medullary hormones

Front 172

-one pre-to one or a few postganglionic neurons
-all release ACh which is quickly broken down
short, localized effects

Back 172

parasympathetic

Front 173

pre- to many postganglionic neurons at several levels; longer-lasting due to:

Back 173

1. NE inactivated more slowly than ACh because it relies on reuptake
2. NE acts through second-messenger system (slower)
3. NE (15%) and E (85%) secreted by adrenal medulla; E is more potent and effects last longer then Ach until hormones by the liver

Front 174

the reticular formation that exerts most direct effects (cardiovascular center, respiratory centers)

Back 174

brain stem and spinal cord

Front 175

integration center via relay through reticular formation that influences preganglionic ANS motor neurons in CNS, pysicological responses to emotions. main control over ANS

Back 175

hypothalamus

Front 176

conscious control of autonomic functions

Back 176

meitation

Front 177

-provide awareness of what is happening in our bodies
-data "fed back' to subject by signals (lights or tones) and subjects asked to try to alter or control by concentrating on pleasant thoughts
-migraine headache, stress management

Back 177

biofeedback

Front 178

the eye contains _% of all sensor receptors of the body

Back 178

70

Front 179

only the anterior 1/6 of the __ is visible

Back 179

eye

Front 180

shade eyes, prevent perspiration from dripping into them

Back 180

eyebrows

Front 181

fleshy area containing sebaceous and sweat glands' produces oily secretion (sleep bugers)

Back 181

caruncle

Front 182

richly innervated with root hair plexuses to make it more sensative, helps protect the eye

Back 182

eyelashes

Front 183

modified sebaceous glands that produce lubricating oily secretion

Back 183

meibomian (tarsal) glands

Front 184

-delicate mucous membrane lining eyelids and surface of eye, respectively
-primary functions to produce lubricating mucous

Back 184

conjunctiba

Front 185

inflammation and infection of conjunctiva, respectively

Back 185

conjunctivitis and pinkeye

Front 186

produces tears

Back 186

lacrimal gland

Front 187

bactericidal enzyme in tears

Back 187

lysozyme

Front 188

white posterior portion

Back 188

sclera

Front 189

-clear for light to enter
-many pain fibers
-only tissue in the body that can be directly transplanted without rejection because of lack of blood vessels

Back 189

cornea

Front 190

posterior 5/6 of uvea
-brown due to melanocytes because it absorbs light shined on it that gives us good color and precise vision during the day.

Back 190

choroid

Front 191

-continuous with choroids
-thick ring around lens
-primary component is cilliary muscles that control the lens shape

Back 191

ciliary body

Front 192

connects to lens to stabalize

Back 192

suspensory ligament

Front 193

-visible colored portion between cornea and lens
-continuous with ciliary body
-acts as a diaphragm to control pupil size

Back 193

iris

Front 194

how many pigments does the eye have?

Back 194

1. only brown pigment, but amount makes them range from brown to gray, pigment develops after birth

Front 195

opening in iris

Back 195

pupil

Front 196

pigmented epithelial cells in a single layer; absorb light, act as phagocytes, and store vitamin A needed for photoreceptors

Back 196

pimented layer of the iris

Front 197

transparent; millions of photoreceptors and other neurons; three types of cells here

Back 197

neural (nervous) layer of the retina

Front 198

cells nearest the pigmented layer in the neural layer of the retina

Back 198

photoreceptors

Front 199

no photoreceptors where optic nerve starts

Back 199

optic disc (blind spot)

Front 200

most numerous photoreceptors; sensitive to light but do not produce sharp or color images

Back 200

rods

Front 201

photorecpetors that need bright light; give high quality color vision

Back 201

cones

Front 202

yellow spot lateral to blind spot

Back 202

macula lutea

Front 203

at center of macula lutea; only cones for greatest acuity

Back 203

fovea centralis

Front 204

-fills posterior segment; clear gel with free collagenic fibrils
-lasts a lifetime
-transmits light, supports posterior surface of lens and holds neural retina against pigmented layer
-contributes to intracular pressure to counteract extrinsic eye muscles

Back 204

viterous humor

Front 205

-fills anterior segment, which is composed of anterior and posterior chambers that are divided by the iris
-similar to blood plasma; continually drains

Back 205

aqueous humor

Front 206

drainage of aqueous humor blocked and pressure increases; should have a yearly exam after age 40 to check for this

Back 206

glaucoma

Front 207

biconvex, transparent, flexible for focusing on retina

Back 207

lens

Front 208

fixes the lens in place

Back 208

suspensory ligment

Front 209

why is the lens avascular?

Back 209

for transparency

Front 210

usually clouding of lens due to hardening and thickening; diabete, smoking or sun exposure; can be replaced with an artificial lens

Back 210

cataract

Front 211

visible light has wavelength of __ (blue green red)

Back 211

400-700 nm

Front 212

we mostly see __ light

Back 212

reflected

Front 213

bending of light ray when it meets surface of a different medium at an angle

Back 213

refraction

Front 214

convex lens bends light rays so they converge at a __

Back 214

focal point

Front 215

__ responsible foremost of the refraction but has a constant thickness

Back 215

cornea

Front 216

__ accounts for fine focusing of objects <20 ft away

Back 216

lens

Front 217

distance beyond which no lens shape change needed; 20 feet for emmetropic eye (normal)

Back 217

far point of vision

Front 218

diverging light rays bent more sharply; ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligament tension is released and elastic lens recoils and bulges

Back 218

accommodation of lenses

Front 219

reduce pupil size to prevent most divergent light rays from entering eye (otherwise would be blurry)

Back 219

constriction of pupils

Front 220

oculomotor nerve; directs eyes toward object

Back 220

convergence of eyeballs

Front 221

-when things are focused in front of retina
-eyeball is elongated
-requires concave lenses to diverge light

Back 221

myopia (nearsightedness)

Front 222

parallel light rays (distance) focused behind retina

Back 222

hyperopia (farsightedness)

Front 223

have rod-shaped outer segement while cones have short conical one

Back 223

rods

Front 224

light absorbsing pigments in outer segments

Back 224

visual pigments

Front 225

light-absorbing molecule that combines with opsins (proteins) to form 4 types of visual pigments made from vitamin A (stored by liver)

Back 225

retinal

Front 226

type of opsin bound determines __

Back 226

wavelength of light absorbed

Front 227

retinal-opsin combination breaks down, allowing all trans retinal and opsin to seperated when rhodopsin absorbs light

Back 227

bleaching of the pigment

Front 228

essentially same as for rhodopsin but threshold for activation is much higher (only respond to high-intensity light); three types of cones sensitive to different wavelengths with some overlap each has a different opsin

Back 228

excitation of cones

Front 229

congenital lack of one or more cone types (sex linked)

Back 229

color blindness

Front 230

-when you move from darkness into bright light
-sensitivity of retina decreases and retinal neurons adapt rapidly, switching to cone system (takes 60 seconds and continues to improve for 5-10 min)

Back 230

light adaptation

Front 231

-happens when you move from a well lit area to a dark place
-cones stop functioning and rod pigments have been bleached out, so rods are still inhibited
-rhodopsin eventually accumulates (20-30 min)

Back 231

dark adaptaion

Front 232

rod funciton hampered; usually a vitamin A deficiency that can lead to rod degeneration if vitamin A not restored

Back 232

night blindness

Front 233

our kind of vision; different view form each eye and crossing over of fibers

Back 233

stereoscopic vision

Front 234

animalls with eyes laterally, so visual fields overlap very little

Back 234

panoramic vision

Front 235

only possible with steroscopic ; 3D vision due to fusion of 2 slightly different images

Back 235

depth perception

Front 236

auricle to tympanic membrane, lined with ceruminous glands

Back 236

external auditory canal (meatus)

Front 237

boundary between outer and middle ear; connective tissue that vibrates with sound waves

Back 237

tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Front 238

mucous lined cavity in temporal bone

Back 238

middle ear (tympanic cavity)

Front 239

-links middle ear with nasopharynx
-normally closed, but swallowing or yawning opens it briefly to equalize pressure of middle ear with external (eardrum does not vibrate well otherwise)

Back 239

pharyngotmpanic tube (eustacian tube)

Front 240

inflamation of middle ear; kids auditory tubes are shorter and more horizontal

Back 240

otitis media (ear infection)

Front 241

-smallest bones in body, make up the ear bones
-transmit vibrations to oval window, causing fluid movement in inner ear; articulations complete with tiny minisynovial joints
-tensor tympani and stapedius are muscles that contract reflexively to prevent ear damage due to loud sounds; tympanic reflex reduces sound conduction but takes 40 ms, so sudden noises can still damage

Back 241

ossicles

Front 242

ossicle secured to the eardrum

Back 242

malleus (hammer)

Front 243

middle ossicle

Back 243

incus (anvil)

Front 244

ossicle that fits into oval window

Back 244

stapes (stirrup)

Front 245

bony cavity; contains vestibule, cochlea and semicircular canals

Back 245

bony (osseous) part of the labyrinth

Front 246

interconnecting membranous sacs and ducts in bony labyrinth

Back 246

membranous labyrinth

Front 247

-central cavity of bony labyrinth

Back 247

vestibule

Front 248

membranous labyrinth sacs in vestibule perlilymph; house equilibrium receptors called maculae

Back 248

utricle and saccule

Front 249

swelling at one end of each semicircular duct that houses the crista ampullaris (equillibrium receptor)

Back 249

ampulla

Front 250

membranous part of the cochlea

Back 250

cochlear duct

Front 251

receptor for hearing in chochlear duct

Back 251

spiral organ of corti

Front 252

"roof" of cochlear duct composed of spiral lamina and basilar membrane that supports organ of corti

Back 252

vestibular membrane

Front 253

must have elastic medium for tranmission; 2mps

Back 253

sound

Front 254

number of waves that pass a point in a given time; shorter wavelength, higher frequency; perceived as different pitches

Back 254

frequency

Front 255

intensity (loudness) of sound (measured in decibles)

Back 255

amplitude

Front 256

ossicles transmit and amplify __ to oval window

Back 256

sound

Front 257

oscillation of basal part of cochlear duct sends pressure waves through perilymph

Back 257

basilar membrane

Front 258

on top of basilar membrane and composed of supporting cells and cochlear hair cells (one row of inner hair cells and 3 rows of outer hair cells)

Back 258

organ of corti

Front 259

gell-like membrane over hair cells

Back 259

tectorial membrane

Front 260

interference with vibrations; earwax, ruptured eardrum, otoscleosis of ossicles (hardeing of teh ear duct due to age)

Back 260

conduction deafness

Front 261

damage to neural structures from cochlear hair cells to auditory coritical cells

Back 261

sensorineural

Front 262

ringing in the ears; symptom of chochlear nerve degeneration; inflammation of inner or middle ears, side effect of medications like asprin

Back 262

tinnitus

Front 263

labyrinth disorder; vertigo, nausea, vomiting, balance problems

Back 263

meniere's syndrome

Front 264

relies on hearing and vision, stretch receptors of muscles and tendons

Back 264

equillibrium

Front 265

semicircular canals and vestibule receptors

Back 265

vestibular apparatus

Front 266

sensitive to linear acceleration (straight line changes in speed and direction) but not rotational movement

Back 266

static equillibrium

Front 267

-sensory receptors in each saccule and utricle
-monitor poition of head in space and therefore regulate posture

Back 267

maculae

Front 268

jellylike mass that the hairs embedded in; has tiny stones or otoliths of calcium carbonate that increase weight of membrane and inertia

Back 268

Otolithic membrane

Front 269

major stimuli are angular movements (rotation)

Back 269

crista ampullaris

Front 270

sensitive to angular movements and rotation

Back 270

dynamic equilibrium

Front 271

gel-like mass with a pointed cap

Back 271

cupula

Front 272

you have approximately ____ tastebuds, mostly on the tongue

Back 272

10000

Front 273

tastbuds between and on top of the tongue

Back 273

papillae

Front 274

on entire surface with most on tip and sides of tongue; buds on top

Back 274

fungiform papillae

Front 275

larger, less numerous, back of tongue; taste buds on tops

Back 275

circumvallate papillae

Front 276

the receptor cells responsible for taste

Back 276

gustatory cells

Front 277

microvilli on tips of above cells that project through taste pore

Back 277

gustatory hairs

Front 278

stem cells that differentiate into supporting cells that in turn give rise to new gustatory cells

Back 278

basal cells

Front 279

you shed your tastebuds every

Back 279

7-8 days

Front 280

tastes:

Back 280

-sweet
-salty
-sour
-bitter
-umami (amino acid glutamate)

Front 281

taste is __% of smell

Back 281

80

Front 282

roof of nasal cavity

Back 282

olfactory epithelium

Front 283

bowling-pin shaped cells; surrounded by supporting cells with a yellow-brown pigment

Back 283

olfactory receptor cells

Front 284

cilia increase surface area; covered with mucus from supporting cells and olfactory glands

Back 284

olfactory hairs

Front 285

the only actual neurons that turnover throughout life (every 60 days)

Back 285

olfactory nerves

Front 286

in order to smell something it must be a __

Back 286

water soluble gas

Front 287

-lack of smell
-head injury (olfactory nerve damage)
-physical obstruction; aging, inflamation, zinc defincency (growth factor for receptors)

Back 287

anosmia