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139 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is social reality |
Interaction betweeb the person and situation |
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What is mimicry |
Refert to taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others |
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What is chameleon effect (nonconscious mimicry) |
How people mimic others non consciously, automatically copying others behaviours even without realizing it -another form of mimicry (Walking slower with elderly) (Scratching head after seeing others do it) |
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What are social norms |
Unwritten guidelines for how to behave in social contexts -expectations on how people should think, act, behave -punish if violate, reward if followed -can be unconscious |
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What are social roles |
A given social position that is governed by a set if norms for proper behaviour - set of norms that characterize how people in a social position should act |
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What is rime conflict |
Norms for different roles clash -have many different roles we play |
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What is culture |
A program of shared rules that govern the behaviour of members of a community or society - set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of a community (Passed down through generations) |
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What is social loafing |
When individuals put less effort into tasks when working with others |
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What is social facilitation |
When ones performance is affected by the presence of others - Can enhance or reduce performance depending on circumstances |
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What is groupthink |
Refers to this stifling of diversity that occurrs when individuals are not able to express their true perspectives, instead focus more on maintaing harmony in the group and no being evaluated negatively |
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What are the 4 reasons for social loafing |
1) low efficacy beliefs (if task to hard people don't know where to start) 2) believing that ones contributions are not important to the group 3) not caring about the group's outcome (not personally identified with group) 4) feeling like others are not trying very hard (people loaf if others are) |
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What are the 3 main problems from groupthinking |
1)the group may disregard potential problems and risks that could occur because of the decisions that are considering (focus on positive) 2)groups make decisions quickly (don't discuss new ideas) 3) groups often become very confident in their decisions |
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From groupthinking was is likely to occur |
1) pressure on dissenters to conform - strong leader -head of group makes fun of those who don't - pressure to get along with group 2) members are similar to one another |
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What are the 4 ways to prevent groupthink |
1) reward individuals when they express dissent and doubt 2) encouraging and protecting views of the minority 3)getting the group to create as many solutions to a problem 4)foster a group image of open minded problem solvers |
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What is conformity |
For norms to influence behaviour individuals must conform to the norms The adjustment of individuals - behaviours -attitudes -beliefs To a groups standard |
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What is the Asch conformity experiment |
Subjects in a group were asked to match line lengths -1 was an actual participant (sat last) -others were all confederates which picked the same wrong line on trials |
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What were the results/ why did they conform in the Asch conformity experiments |
-1% error rate in the control condition -1/3 of people conformed to the incorrect group more than half the time Why -avoid rejection and disruption -some doubted their judgments of eyesight |
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Why do we conform |
Informational social influence -following opinions of others because we believe others have accurate knowledge (know what is right) Normative social influence -confirming motivated by gaining social acceptance and avoid rejection |
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What factors affect conformity |
Group size -conformity increases when going from 1 confederate to 3 to 5 in group Presence of a dissenter -at least 1 reduces conformity Type of culture -individualist cultures or collectivist cultures - Greater in collectivist cultures |
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What are the positives and negatives of conformity |
Positive -society fund more smoothly when people know how to act in certain situations and hwne share common attitudes Negative - Can suppress critical thinking and creativity |
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What is the case of kitty Genovese (anonymous crowd) |
-stabbed to death (3 times) -1 person yellowed out window after 1st stabbing but didn't call police -many neighbours heard the screams (38 people) - no one called police until after she was dead |
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What is diffusion of responsibility (anonymous crowd) |
In organized and anonymous groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking responsibility for actions because they assume that others will do so Examples -bystander apathy/ effect -social loafing -deindividuation |
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What is the bystander apathy/ effect |
-principle that the presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person's tendency to help due to social comparison or diffusion of responsibility - people fail to call for help when others are near |
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What us pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect |
-social norms operating in the situation may be quite different from the actual beliefs held by the people themselves Maintain an appearance of neutrality even tho: -you may not agree with what us going on in situation -may have private concerns |
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What is deindividuation |
In groups/ crowds, the loss of awareness of one own individuality - not mindless but more Likly to conform to norms - Can influence unlawful as well as friendly behaviours (mob behaviours) Factors that influence -size of group -uniforms or masks
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2 examples of deindividuation |
Zimbarbo - women disguised in Ku Klux Klan type of disguises -delivered twice as much apparent shock compared to those not disguised and wearing a name tag •Johnson and downing - women wearing nurses uniforms -delivered less shock then women wearing their normal clothing (Type of disguise was a single of how to behave) |
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What was the stanford prison study by Dr. Zimbardo |
Delictd the power that riles have over our behavour Goal -wanted to examine the effects of randomly assigning university students to roles of guards and prisoners Design -Subjects were mentally and physically healthy men -randomly assigned roles |
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What were the results of the stanford prison study |
The prisoners -became distressed, panicky, helpless -developed physical ailments -some were rebellious others apathetic -half wanted to leave Guards -some nice or "tough but fair" -1/3 became tyrannical (abusive when not necessary) Study ended after 6 days due to drastic changes in student behaviour -waa planned to be 2 weeks |
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What was the obedience study |
-stanley Milgram investigated whether people would follow orders even when they violated their ethical standards -participants thought it was examining the effects of punishment learing -participants were the teacher, relievers which when confederate was wrong (word pairs learner was to have memorized) -increased shock with each wrong answer 15 volt increase up to 450 volts - No actual shock but participants didn't know |
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What were the predictions of psychiatrists in the obedience study |
150 volts- most people would refuse to go beyond 450 volts- 1/1000 would administer this level of shock |
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Actual results of the obedience study |
Most people were more obedient -everyone complied with at least some orders to shock another person -65% or 2/3 obeyed to the highest level of shock - No gender differences -transferred responsibility to experimenter |
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Under what conditions were people more Likly to disobey |
-when the experimenter left the room -when the victim was in the same room -when two experimenters issues conflicting demands -when the person ordering them to continue was an ordinary man -when participant worked with peers who refused to go further |
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What factors influence destructive obedience |
-remoteness of victim -closeness and legitimacy of authority figure -cog in a wheel (more obedience if someone else is doing dirty work) -personal characteristics not important |
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Why do people obey |
-consequences of not obeying - What they hope to gain - people believe in the legitimacy if the authority figure -don't want to cause trouble (appear rude, question experts, disliked) |
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3 factors that cause people to obey |
1) allocating responsibility to the authority 2) routinizing the task (behaviour feels normal if define behavior in terms of routine roles and duties) 3) becoming entrapped |
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What is entrapment |
Gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, effort |
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What is social cognition |
Area in social psychology conceded with social influences on though, memory, perception, and other cognitive processes |
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What are researchers interested in social cognition |
- how people perceptions of themselves and others affect relationships -hoe the social environment influences thoughts, beliefs and values |
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What are the 2 types of cognitive process |
Implicit processes (quick, pop into mind and take a lot of effort to control it) Explicit processes (slower, takes effort, usually takes place one step at a time) |
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What us implicit processes |
Comprise our unconscious thought; they are intuitive, automatic, effortless, very fast, operate out of out international control -precede deliberation -process info efficienlty but often through the development of biases |
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What is explicit processes |
Correspond roughly to conscious thought: are deliberative, effortful, a lie, under our intentional control |
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What is person perception |
The processes where individuals categorize and form judgments about other people -when first meeting people we rely on schemas (gender, race, style bring schemas that bring traits to mind automatically) -first impressions are formed quickly and are often accurate (based in thin slices of behaviour |
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What is self fulfilling prophecy |
When a first impression affects ones behaviour and then that affects other people's behaviour leading one to confirm that initial impression or expectation |
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How do Self concepts affect how we see the world |
-make individuals think they are the way people should be -strong inclination to divide the world on it US and Them -false consensus |
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What is false consensus effect |
Refer to the tendency to project the self concept into the social world |
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What is naive realism |
Our assumption that our perceptions of reality are accurate, that we see things the way they are |
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What are self serving biases |
Biased ways of processing self relevant information to enhance our positive self evaluation (Take credit for our success and blame other factors for our failures |
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What are attributions |
Judgments about causes of our own and other people's behaviour and outcomes |
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What is attribution theory |
Theory that people are motivated to explain their own and others behaviour by attributing causes of that behaviour to a situation or a disposition |
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What are the 2 categories of attributions |
Dispositional (internal) -peoples behaviours caused by their characteristics Situational (external) -aspects of situation cause behaviour |
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What is correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error) |
When explaining others behaviour we: -underestimate impact if situational factors -overestimate role of personal factors |
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What does fundamental attribution error happen |
-In good mood and don't take time to think about person motives critically -preoccupied and distracted -collectivistic cultures are more aware if situational factors |
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What is group serving bias |
Tendency to explain favourably the behaviours of members of groups to which we belong -less in collectivistic cultures than individualistic cultures |
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What is just world hypothesis |
Motion that many people need to believe that the world is fair and that justice is served Affects our attributions (Blaming the victim) |
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What is social identity in Us versus Them |
Part of person's self concept that is based on their identification with a nation, culture or gender -gives sence of belonging - Can have more than 1 |
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What are in groups and in group bias |
In groups -groups we feel positivity toward and identify with In group bias -positive biases towards the self get extended to include ones In groups, people become motivated to see their In groups as superior to this out groups |
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Whar are iut groups |
Are thr other groups that we dont indentfy with |
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What is ethnocentrism in Us versus Them |
The belief that ones own group is superior to all others -aids servival by making people feel attached to their own group and willing to work in their groups behalf (Strengthened when groups compete) |
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What is Robbers Cave experiment |
Goal - to examine the effects of competition on hostility and conflict between groups Boys put in 2 groups -rattles and eagles -introduced group projects (making rope bridge) -gave prizes to create competition |
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What were the results for the Robbers Cave experiment |
-competitions made hostility between groups (Raiding other groups cabin, fist fights) |
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What are stereotypes |
Schemas or summary impressions of a group where a person believes that all members if the group share common traits (positive, negative, neutral) -quickly process new info -make sence of differences among groups to predict behaviour - not necessarily bad |
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What is prejudice |
An affective emotionally laden response to members of outgroups, including holding negative attitudes and making critical judgments of other groups |
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What is discrimination |
Treating people unfairly based on the group to which that belong in |
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What is explicit and implicit prejudice |
Explicit -prejudice we are conscious of Implicit -prejudice we are unconscious of -automatic -true measure of person feelings |
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What does implicit prejudice measure |
-symbolic racism -behaviours rather than attitudes -physiological changes in the brain -unconscious associations what a target group |
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What conditions need to be met to overcome prejudice |
1) groups must have equal legal status, economic opportunities and power 2) community instistuatiin must endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support for both sides 3) both sides must have opportunities to work and socialize together 4) both sides must cooperate and work together to a common goal |
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What is contact hypothesis |
Decline is prejudice when people have opportunity to get accustomed to other groups food, customs, rules |
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What are attitudes |
Positive or negative evaluation reactions towards a stimulus (Supported by beliefs and values) |
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What are the 2 kinds of attitudes |
Explicit - we are aware of them -shape conscious decisions and actions Implicit -unaware of -may influences our behaviour on ways we don't recognize |
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What factors influence attitude change |
-decide that you were wrong -new experiences - not all attitudes are a result of thinking -some arrudtudes are a result of social influence (Can cause coercion and subtle manipulation) |
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Kinda of new experiences that change attitudes |
Change in social environment -Change in social groups Change in behaviours |
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What is elaborative likelihood model in persuasion |
Information can appeal to people through 2 general routes: 1) central route to persuasion -when people pay close attention to the content of a message 2) peripheral route to persuasion -not as powerful -its easier -people may not pat much attention but can be convinced |
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In central route what are the 2 ways to get people to pay attention to argument |
Motivation Opportunity (When people have sufficient time and freedom from distraction, not overly complex info) Make it personal -making effective communications involed a subtle consideration of nuances that can make a message more personally engaging |
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What are the effective methods for influencing attitudes in peripheral route |
Authority Liking Familiarity effect Validity effect Social validation Reciprocity Consistency |
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Authority |
The use of experts to deliver a message can often enhance the impact of the message |
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Liking |
People who connect with their audience are going to get their message across more effectively -knowledgeable, admirable, beautiful all affect |
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What is familiarity effect |
tendency of people to feel more positively toward a person or stimulus the more familiar they are with it |
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What is validity effect |
Tendency for people to believe that a statement is true or valid simplest because it have been repeated many times |
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What is social validation |
Because people are social species we use the behaviour of others as a guide to inform us what we should do (Confomity can be a powerful tactic) |
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What is reciprocity |
A strong social norms that people should repay others if they have received some thing from then -used in two step manner called door in the face technique |
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What us the door in the face technique |
Involves asking for some thing big then following with a request for something small -Logic that once someone has scaled back their request you are obligated to meet then part way |
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Consistency |
Most powerful influence technique -is an old salesperson' trick called the foot in the door technique |
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What is the foot in the door technique |
Invokes making a simple request followed by a larger request -uses psychological consistency (After saying yes to small request it's hard to say no to larger one) |
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What is cognitive dissonance theory |
State if tension that happens when people simultaneously hold 2 cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent - when a person belief is incogruent with their behaviour or 2 attitudes are in conflict - has to change 1 to get rid of conflict |
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What is health psychology |
Study both the positive and negative impacts that humans behaviour and decisions have on their health, survival and well being |
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What are psychosocial influences on health |
Poverty and discrimination Family and social environment Social contagion |
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Poverty |
-lack of sence if control and live in circumstances that compromise their health -social stressors (lead to depression, anxiety) Health problems worsened by stress -in poverty people have poorer diets |
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Discrimination |
- people constantly alert cause unpredictable -linked to blood pressure, heart rate, stress hormones - more Likly yo have unhealthy behaviours |
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What is social relience (family and social environment) |
Ability to keep positive relationships and to endure and recover from social isolation and life stressors -protect individuals from loneliness -chronic social isolation is as great mortality risk as smoking, obesity and high blood pressure |
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What is social contagion |
The often subtle unintentional spreading of a behaviour as a result of social interactions -What people do around us influence our life style choices
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What can cause stress |
-sudden traumatic experiences -continuing pressures that seem uncontrollable -small irritations that wear on you |
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What are the 3 classes of stressors |
1) microstressors -daily hassles 2)catastrophic events -unexpected -natural disasters, war 3)major negative events -death of loved one |
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What are daily hassles |
Series of little stressors that include irritations and demands that happen in daily life |
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What is the social readjustment rating scale (SSRS) |
-holmes and Rahe -stress scale that rates the degree of which life events are stressful -measure social readjustment -each item assigned point value in scale of 100 -points= life change units (Greater number assigned to the event the greater the social readjustment required) |
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What is social readjustment |
Degree to which life events require the person to adjust it adapt to the new situation |
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What are the advantages and disadvantages to the SSRS |
Advantages -positive and negative events are considered stressful Disadvantages -dosent consider degree to which may find same event stressful |
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What is cognitive appraisal theory of stress |
-refers to the cognitive act if assessing and evaluating the potential threat and demand of an event |
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What are the 2 steps if the appraisal theory of stress |
1) primary appraisal (asking is this a threat) 2) secondary appraisal (decide hot to cope with the threat) |
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What is individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) |
A range of emotional intensity in which they is most Likly to perform at their best |
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When can stressors increase illness |
When they: -severely disrupt a person's life - are uncontrollable - are chronic (last at least 6 months) |
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What is flight or flight response |
Set if physiological changes that happen in response to psychological or physical threats |
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What us general adaptation syndrome |
-selye -Series of physiological response to stress is that happen in 3 phases: 1) alarm 2) resistance 3)exhaustion |
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Alarm |
-simular to fight or flight -rapid increase in physiological arousal in response to physical and psychological stressors -sympathetic and parasympathetic (Relasese homormes, most important cortisol |
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Resistance |
Body tried to resist or cope with stressor -eventually resources are no longer sufficient |
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Exhaustion |
- if stress is last to long -resources dangerously depleted -increased vulnerability to desuesas -cab led to cardiovascular problems and immune system difficulties -reaction in 1 and 2 are unhealthy for long amount of time |
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Stress leads hypothalamus to do what |
Send messages to endocrine glands along two pathways 1)one activities the sypathetice nervous system (Epinephrine and norepinephrine from inner portion of adrenal glands) 2) activation along the HPA axis (Hypothalamus pituitary adrenal context axis) -secretion of cortisol |
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What us psychoneuroimmunology |
The study if the relationship between immune system and nervous system functioning |
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What do health researchers focus on |
-individual differences in the cardiovascular immune endocrine systems -psychological factors (emotions) -how people behave under stress |
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What protects people against stress |
-optimism and pessimism -sence of control |
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What is optimism |
Tendency for have a favourable veiw on situations and to expect positive outcomes |
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What is pessimism |
Tender to have a negative perception of life and expect negative outcomes |
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What is pessimistic explanatory style |
The tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based and as a constant stable quality |
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What us negative affectivity |
Tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt or neevesousness |
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Optimistic explanatory styles tend to: |
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What is a locus of control |
Where the results if your action are under you own control (internal locus) or beyond your control (external locus) -internal locus is associated with health |
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What is an essential element in controling stress |
Hardiness( stress protective factor) -commitment (believe in what they do) -control (have control over sitiaution) -challenge(situation is a challenge not a threat) (Control is the strongest in buffering stress) |
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What is learned helplessness |
Acquired suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant uncontrollable circumstances -believe their actions has no influence in external events |
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Look at |
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What is primary control |
An effort to modify reality by changing other people the situation or event (fight back philosophy) -western cultures |
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What us secondary control |
An effort to accept reality by changing your own attitudes goal and emotions (learn to live with it philosophy) -eastern cultures |
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Hostility and heart disease |
Men with high hisoloity scores are young medical students had higher rates of heart disease 25 years later -Hostility is more hazardous than a heavy workload |
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What leads to postivite benefits |
-mat counter act high arousal caused by stress -may attract more friends and social support -may take more actions because come up with more options |
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What us confession |
Divulging private thought and feeling that make you ashamed or depress |
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How can people cope with stress |
Physical strategies (deal with stress by reducing physiological arousal) Problem oriented strategies Cognitive strategies Social strategies |
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What us progressive relaxation training |
Learning to alternately tense and relax muscles, lie or sit quietly, meduatar by clearing the mind Benefits -lowers stress hormones -lowers anger -lowers blood pressure -enhances immune functioning |
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What is meditation |
Any procedure that involves a shift in consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware and jnconttil of mental process - good for reducing blood pressure |
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What us mindfulness based stress reduction |
A structured relaxation program based on elements of mindfulness meditation -help people cope and relax by increasing the link between ones body and mind |
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What are physical strategies |
Massage therapy -reduces depression -lowers stress hormones levels -increased leave if natural killer cells -reduces pain -increased mental alertness Exercise -lowers levels of anxiety -less depressed -fewer physical symptoms -fewer colds |
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What is emotion focused coping |
Focus in the emotions the problem caused Focus entensivly on even to -come to terms with it -reduces negative emotions - decide what to do Then how to solve the problem |
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What is problem focused coping |
Try to determine how to solve the problem -initially identify the problem -gather as much info as possible |
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What are effective cognitive coping strategies |
-reapprasising the situation -Learning for the experience -making social comparisons |
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What us reapprasising the situation |
Can't always remove the stressor Reappraisal -process of choosing to thing about a situation differently Turns problems into challenges - can change worry into determination |
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What us learing from the experience |
Ability to find meaning and benefits in negative life events is a very important |
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What is resilience (learning from experience) |
Ability to effectively recover from illness or adversity |
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What us post trumatice growth |
The capacity to grow and experience long term positive effect in response to negative events |
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Making social comparisons |
To compare oneself tibthise who are less fortunate Also can compare to people who are doing better |
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Social support |
-mat prevent maladaptive ways of coping - people with networks connections live longer -support by joining a group with simular experiences |
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Healing through helping |
Cope by giving support to others -stimulates optimism -restored feelings of control -encourages problem solving -reduces blaming it venting -helps with reappraisal of situation |
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How do stereotypes distort reality |
1) exaggerate differences between groups 2) produce selective perception (reject perceptions that don't fit stereyotype) 3) underestimate differences within other groups |
