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140 Cards in this Set
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What is social psychology |
The scientific study if the way peoples thoughts, feelings and actions are influenced by real or imagined presence of others -empirical science |
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What are social psychologists interested in |
Studying how and why out thoughts and feelings are shaped by out social environment |
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What is construal |
The way people percieve comprehend and interpret their social world -are subjective interpretations of social phenomena |
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How is social psychology tests |
Ideas about social thinking and behavior is tested by objective and systematic collection of data using scientific method |
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How does social psychology and sociol differ |
-social psychology studies individuals -sociology examines broad societal factors |
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How are social psychology and personality psychology differ |
-social focus on what people are like and what most people do -social emphasizes the psychological processes shared by most -personality focus on individual differences or aspects of personalities that make them different |
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What I'd fundamental attribution error |
Tendency to overestimate the extent that people behavior is due to internal, dispositiinal factors and underestimate the role of external, situational factors |
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Fundamental attribution error |
Is the tendency to explain peoples behaviour in terms of personality traits or factors internal to the person |
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What happens when we underestimate the power of social influence and overestimate the importance of personalities in our behaviour |
We have a false sence of security and a false sence of prediction and control -allows us to feel comfortable that negative events would never happen to us |
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What is an example of situational factors |
Study be Lieberman, Samuel's and Ross (2004) -asked students to predict if students would behave competitively or cooperatively in a strategy game -students were told it was either a wall street game of a community game |
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What Is counterfactual thinking |
The attempt to mentally undo a bad or negative outcome when the outcome of behaviour is known |
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When does counterfactual thinking happen |
When we believe that conditions causing the behavior could have been changed as a result the outcomes dramatically altered -example if hindsight bias |
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When does the hindsight bias happen |
When we have a sense of certainty about specific conditions under which an event occurs -guven those conditions the outcome was inevitable |
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The hind sight bias can lead to what |
Self deception and unjustified self blame |
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What is unjustified self blame |
That we should have handled the situation better,what we should have done -we are too hard on ourselves -what is obvious no was not then |
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What is gestalt psychology |
Stresses the importance of studying the subjective way an object appears in a person's minds rather the objective, physical attributes of the object |
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What founding father applied gestalt principles to social perception |
Kurt lewin |
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Where does construal come from |
Basic human motives -need to be accurate about ourselves and our world -need to feel good about ourselves -need for survival |
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What is self esteem approach |
Self esteem is the evaluations of ines self worth -most people need to maintain a positive view of themselves -day sacrifice to have a positive self esteem -people value self esteem more than things such as a paycheck or seeing a friend |
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What is self justification |
-alter recollections of past acting that made us unhappy in order to feel good about past actions -modify out attitudes to negative situations we chose to endure to justify out particatpation -Under severe suffering people attempt to maintain their self esteem by evaluating the group responsible for the suffering in very positive terms |
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What is social cognition |
Pefers to how people think about themselves and their social world (How people select, interpret, remember and use social info) |
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What is the social cognition approach |
The incorpor of human cognitive abilities into theories of social behaviour Ex. Reasoning abilities, judgments about others, decision making, explanations of theirs behavior |
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How do expectations play into the understanding the social world |
Our basis of past behaviour or past occurrence from what we believe should happen Ex. Self fulfilling prophecy |
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What is self fulf prophecy |
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) -expectiaons influence the performance or actions of people - |
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What is the evolutionary approach |
Incorporates Darwin's theory of natural selection into explanations of behaviour and mental preocesses |
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What is natural selection |
The process in which heritable traits that promote survival and reproduction in a particular environment are selectively passed on to future generations |
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What does evolutionary psychology explain |
Tries to explain social behaviour and cognitive abilities in terms of genetically based traits (adaptations) that were naturally selected in it distant past because thaoe traits led to survival Ex. Biological drives and psychological drives influence our thoughts and behaviors |
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Social psychological research has attempted to understand and find solutions to social problems to... |
-aids education and prevention -reducing feelings of prejudice - examining the effects of violent television -disouriaging unhealthy behaviors |
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What are the 3 types of methods in social psychology |
1) observational method 2) correlational method 3) experimental method |
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What is the hindsight bias |
Tendency for people to overestimate how well they could have predicted an outcome after it already happened |
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What is a theory |
An organized set of principles and assumptions that can be used to explain observed behaviour |
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What I'd a hypothesis |
A testible statmentent about the relationship between twi or more variable |
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What do theorys tell a scientist |
-what to look for -what is important -how to measure and assess variables -how results should be interpreted or understood |
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Science follows a deductive process |
Start with a questions and interpretation or understanding of an idea then followed by the collection of data (Inductive is the opposite) |
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What is operational |
The precise specification of hoe variables are measured or manipulated |
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What is the observational method |
Where a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour |
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What is ethnography |
Form of observations method -where the researchers observe a group or culture from the inside without imposing any of their preconceived notions |
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What are the drawbacks of observational method |
-certain kinds of behaviour that happen only rarely or in private are difficult to observe -how came we be sure observers are presenting an accurate portrayal of social behaviour (one way is interjudge reliability) |
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What is interjudge reliability |
The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data -to make sure observations arnt subjective impressions of one individual |
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What is archival analysis |
Kind of observation method -an examination of the accumulated documents or archives of a culture (diaries) Ex. Nun study (danner 2001) |
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What is the correlational method |
Technique where researchers systematically measure twi ir more variables and assess the relation between them (Measures how much one variable can be predicted by another variable) |
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What is the correlation coefficient |
Calacualted statistic that assesses how well you can predict one variable based on another -ranges from +1 to -1 ( predicting weight from height) |
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What are positive and negative correlations |
Positive (indicate that an increase in one variable is assoc with an increase in the other) Negative (indicated that an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another) |
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When is correlation method used |
-when an event actually occurs in real time -collect much data in short period of time -invesigate issues that have moral or theoretical constraints |
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Correlation methods is used for |
Surveys -research where sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behavior |
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What is the advantage to surveys |
-allow researchers to judge relations between variables that are difficult to observe -sample representative segment of populations |
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What are the disadvantages of surveys |
-if not randomly selected then people didn't have an equal chance so the sample doesn't represent the population -accurcy of responses |
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What are the limits of correlational method |
-do not show the causal direction of the relationship it only tells if twi variables are related -correaltion doesn't equal causation |
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What is experimental method |
-shows causal relations - researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions that are identical except for the independent variable |
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What is internal validity |
Ensuring that nothing other than the independent variable is affecting the dependent variable |
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How is internal validity accomplished |
controlling all extraneous variables -randon assignment -control groups |
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What is confounded |
When extraneous variables are present in a study - means that there are one or more alternate explanations for the results do the the variables |
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What I'd probability level |
-help against misinterpreting results -is a number calculated with statistical techniques that tessler researchers how likely it is that the results happened by chance (Results are statistically significant if probability is less than 5 in 100) |
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What is external validity |
The extent to which the trailers of a study can be generalized to other situations and people |
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What are the 3 kinds of generalizability |
1) generalizability across situations 2) generalizability across people 3) generalizability across cultures |
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What is mundane realism in generalizability across situations |
The extent to which an experiment is similar to real life situations |
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What is psychological realism in generalizability across situations |
The extent to which an e triggered the same perceptions, thought and decision making as would occur in everyday life - cover stories are used to maintain it but telling the purpose if study is different than it is |
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What is generalizability across people |
-extent to which we can generalize from the people who participate to people in general -samples from populations |
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How to test external validity |
Replication (repeating the study with different populations or setting) Meta-analysis (statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of independent variable is reliable) |
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Know |
Both internal and external validity cant be captured in a single experiment -usally internal validity first |
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What ate field experiments |
Conducting experiments in a natural setting -way to increase external validity |
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What is Etic and emic processes in generalizability across cultures |
Etic - psychological processes are universal Emic - shaped by the culture we live in |
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What is social neuroscience |
Study of the connection between biological processes and social behaviour Ex. Studying brain activity and its relation to behaviour and social information processing (MIR , fMRI) |
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What is basic research |
Designed to fund out why people behave the way the do -is conducted purely for reason of intellectual curiosity |
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What is applied research |
involves studies designed to solve a particular social problem -building a theory of behaviour is usually secondary to solving the problem |
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What is informed consent |
Participants are explained the experiment before stating and give consent to take part |
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What is deception and debriefing session |
Deception (when the true purpose of the study is misled) Debriefing session ( happens after the experiment where there was deception and the true purpose is explained) |
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What ethical procedures must be followed |
-informed cosent -peoole must be told thry can withdrawal without any negative consequences -anonymity and confidentiality
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What is automa thinking |
Thinking that is unconscious, unintentional and effortless (Recognizing a common object) -rely in schemas for information |
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What is schemas |
Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world -influence the information we notice, think about and remember |
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How does schemas influence the process of information |
Information that is relevant to a schema is processed quicker than information that is not relevant |
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What is the experiment by garder, macintyre and laldonde (1995) |
Participants rated stereotypical characteristics of various ethic and gender groups quicker than non stereotypical characteristics |
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What are stereotypes |
Schemas about member of a social group - happen automatically and rapidly -study by Cornell (2002) photograph of white or black male to see who has a gun |
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What do schemas do |
-help organize and make sense of our world and fill in the gaps of our knowledge -help is have continuity and to relate new experiences to our past |
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When applying schemas what is accessibility and priming |
Accessibility (the extent that schemas are at the forefront of people minds making them likely used when making judgments) Priming ( the process of recent experiences increase a schemas accessibility). |
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What are judgment heuristics |
Mental shortcuts used to make judgments and decisions quickly and efficiently |
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What are availability heuristics |
A metal rulr of thumb that people bad a judgment on the ease with which they can being something to mind |
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What is representativeness heuristics |
A mental shortcut that people classify something according to how similar it Is to a typical case |
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What is controlled thinking (high effort thinkig) |
Thinking that is conscious, intentional effortful and voluntary |
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What is a purpose of automatic thinking |
To provide checks and balances for automatic processing |
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What is counterfactual thinking |
Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imaging what might have been -conscious and effortful but not always voluntary and intentional |
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When do we engage in counterfactual reasoning |
When we can easily imagine having avoided a negative even -the easier ti imagine a tragedy having been avoided the more distressed people feel |
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When is counterfactual reasoning useful |
-when people focus attention on ways that they can cope better in future -motivating them to take steps to prevent similar outcomes in the future |
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What is thought suppression |
The attempt to avoid thinking about something a person would prefer to forget -successful thought suppression depends on (Monitiring process) (Operating process) |
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What is monitoring process |
The automatic process of searching for evidence that the unwanted thought is about to intrude on consciousness |
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What is operating process |
The controlled, effortful and conscious attempt to distract oneself by finding something else to think about |
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How can we overcome flawed thinking |
Avoid an overconfidence barrier -the barrier that results when people have too much confidence in the accuracy of their judgments |
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Ways to improve human thinking |
-consider other points of view -teach people basic statistical and methodological principles about how to reason |
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Western cultures use what type of thinking |
Analytic thinking -focus in the properties of objects/ people without considering the surrounding context |
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What type of thinking do east Asian cultures us |
Holistic thinking -focus in the while picture (the person/object and the surrounding context) |
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What is social perception |
The study of how we form impressions of other people and make inferences about them |
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What are nonverbal communication (nonverbal behavior) |
The way people communicate, intentionally or unin without words |
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What is non verbal cues (nonverbal behavior) |
Include Facial expressions Ton of voice Gestures Body position or movement Use of touch Eye gaze |
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What are the primary uses of nonverbal behavior |
-expressing emotion -coveting attitudes -communicating personality -substitution for verbal messages |
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What does Charles Darwin believe about primary emotions made by the face |
-all humans encode (express) emotions in the same way -all humans can decode (inteepret) emotions with equal accuracy |
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What are Ekman's universality 6 facial expressions of emotion |
Anger Happiness Surprise Fear Disgust Sadness (Contrmpt and others have been added) |
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Why are facial expressions hard to interpret accurately |
-people may try to appear less emotional than they are -people may display blends of multiple affects simultaneously |
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What is an affect blend |
A facial expression that one part of the face is registering one emotion and the other part is registering a different emotion |
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Display rules |
Are culturally determined roles about which nonverbal behaviours are appropriate to display |
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What are emblems |
Are nonverbal gestures that have well understood definitions within a given culture -usally have direct verbal translations like okay sign -are not universal |
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What Is implicit personality theory |
Type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits (Shy =not intelligent) (Attrative people= positive personality) |
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What is attribution theory (answering why) |
A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and others behavior |
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What are the two kinds of causal attributions |
Internal (inference that a persons behaviour is due to something about him such as their attitude or personality) External ( inference that a persons behaviour is because of something about the situation they are in) |
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What does the Kelley covariation model state |
For us to form an attribution about what caused a behaviour we systematically not thr pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour happens |
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The Kelley model says we take into consideration what 3 types of information when forming an attribution |
-consensus information( info about the extent that other people behavior the same way as the acor does) -distinctiveness information (info about the extent one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli) -considtency information (info about the extent that the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances) |
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What is correspondence bias |
The tendency to infer that peoples behavior corresponded to or matches their disposition ---fundamental attribution error |
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What is the fundamental attribution error |
Tendency to overestimate the extent to which peoples behavior is due to internal, depositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors |
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What is the 2 step process of making attributions |
1) we make an internal attribution assuming the person behaviour is caused by something about the person 2) we attempt to adjust this attribution by considering the situation the person was in |
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What are self serving attributions (when self esteem is threatened) |
Tendency to take credit for ones successes (internal attribution) Tendency to blame others or the situation for ones own failures (external attributions) |
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What are defensive attributions when self esteem is threatened |
Explanations for behaviour that help us avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality (Brlief in a just world) |
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What is the belief in a just world |
The assumption that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get (Bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people) |
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What is the consequence of a just world |
Blaming the victim -people will blame and derogate innocent victims in order to maintain their just world beliefs |
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Why do we have just world beliefs |
-to maintain motivational to plan ahead for the future (believing that our long term efforts will be rewarded) - to assure ourselves that bad things will not randomly happen to us |
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What is self concept and self awareness |
Concept (our knowledge about who we are) -executive function regulations behaviour, plans for future
Awareness (the act of thinking about ourselves) |
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What is self schema |
An organized body of knowledge about the self that influences what people notice, think about and remember about themselves |
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What is self reference effect |
The tendency for people to remember information better if they relate it to themselves |
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What is self concept clarity |
The extent to which knowledge about the self is stable, clear and consistently defined -low self concept clarity tent to have low self esteem and prone to depression |
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What view of self concept do western cultures have |
Independent view -definging oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, actions of others |
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What view if self concept do eastern cultures have |
Interdependent view -defing oneself in terms of ones relationships to other people and recognizing that ones behaviour is often determined by the thoughts of others |
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Indicudualist cultures |
Men tend to have an independent view - more likely to have collective interdependence (relation to social groups like sports teams) Women have a more rational interdependent view |
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Collectivist cultures |
Both genders have an equal tendency to have a rational view if self that emphasizes interdependence |
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What is introspection |
The process that people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motive -when we use introspection the reasons for their feelings and behaviors can be hidden from the conscious awareness |
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What us self awareness theory |
Proposes that when people focus tiger attention on themselves they evaluate and compare their behaviour to their internal standards and values |
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Outside and inside persepetives |
East Asian have outside perspective (viewing themselves through other people) Western have insider perspective (focusing on private experiences without considering how others see them) |
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What does the term telling more than we know mean |
Nisbett and Wilson - term for peoples tendency to explain more about their feelings and behavior than they actually know |
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What are causal theories |
Theories about the causes of ones own feelings and behaviours we-we keanr such theories from our cultures (Absence makes the heart grow fonder) |
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What is intrinsic motivation |
The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting |
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What is extrinsic motivation |
The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures |
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What is overjustification effect |
Case where people view their behaviour as caused by extrinsic reasons (The replacing if intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation) |
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What is looking glass self |
Seeing ourselves through the eyes of others and incorporate their views into our self concept |
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What is the social comparison theory |
Festinger (1954) -learnjng iut abilities by comparing ourselves to other people |
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What is downward social comparison |
Where we compare ourselves to people who are worse than we are -self enhancing, self protective strategy (Only happens if we dont feel vulnerable to others negative outcome) |
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What us upward social comparison |
Where we compare ourselves to people who are better than we are -is thteating to our self esteem |
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What did lockwood suggest |
That people from collectivist cultures are more concerned with avoiding failures than achieving success Where the opposite is true for individualistic cultures |
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What is self discrepancy theory |
Theory that we become distressed when our sence of white we really are (actual self) is discrepant from our personal standards or desired self conceptions |
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Discrepancy between the actual self and ideal self peadd ti what |
Depression |
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Discrepancy between the actual self and ought self leads to |
Anxiety |
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What is self enhancement |
An unrealistically positive view of ourself -large phenomenon in individualist cultures |
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What I'd self effacement |
Tendency to hold a negative view of oneself -in collectivist culture |
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What is self verification theory |
Suggests that people have a need to seek confirmation of their self concept whether the self concept is positive or negative -can conflict with the desire to uphold a favourable view of oneself |
