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24 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory |
Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
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Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval |
Memory process has 3 stages Encoding - process of transforming experiences, perceptions, thoughts, or feelings to storable form, getting it into storage Storage - process of maintaining information in memory over time Retrieval - process of bringing to mind previously stored information |
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory |
Three types of memory stores hold information: Sensory memory - automatically registers any stimulus to hit receptors and holds information - holds info briefly, a few seconds at most Short-term (working) memory - stores small amount of information we're currently using/processing -ex. hold a phone number while dialing Long-term memory - relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory system -include knowledge, skills, and experiences Adjustment of this model Short-term memory referred to as working memory to emphasize conscious, active processing that occurs there Some information bypasses short-term memory and goes right into long-term memory without conscious processing (automatic encoding) two encodings: automatic and effortful |
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Automatic processing |
Requires little or no conscious effort we can process: space - picture in book at spatial location time - how long ago did i see bob frequency - that's the third time today |
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Effortful processing |
Requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal - conscious repetition of information Hermann Ebbinghaus -studied rehearsal -studied his own learning and forgetting of novel verbal materials (nonsense syllables) -found amount remembered depends on amount of time spent learning |
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Serial Position Effect |
-occurs when you learn a list of items -immediately after learning list, remember first and last items better than middle -After delay, recall is best on FIRST items. |
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What we encode |
Process information to be remembered by: -encoding its meaning -encoding its image -encoding its sound -mentally organizing the information |
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Encoding meaning |
When which encoding is most effective? Craik and Tulving: -compared 3 types of encoding for effectiveness in processing verbal information (visual, acoustic, semantic) -ask subject question about word they are about to see, one that requires them to process words visually, acoustically, or semantically -found semantic encoding (encoding MEANING) led more people to later recognize words Deep processing - processing words by its meaning Shallow processing - processing word by its appearance or sound |
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Visual Encoding |
Remember concrete words that we can visualize better than abstract, low-imagery words. High-imagery words- flower, guitar Low-imagery words - trust, aptitude Mnemonic devices - memory techniques that use visual imagery and organization |
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Mnemonic: Method of Locy |
Visualize each item you want to remember in a different spatial location, or "locus." In recall, each location is mentally inspected and the item was placed there (in your imagination) is retrieved. Research: subjects recall up to 7 time more than by rote memorization |
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Mnemonic: peg-word system |
involves both visual and auditory cues memorize jingle: one is a bun two is a shoe three is a tree four is a door... |
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Storage |
3-stage processing model: Sensory memory Working memory (short-term memory) Long-term memory |
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Sensory Memory |
Brief, initial recording of sensory information Spearling (1960) -demonstrated existence of sensory memory -flashed array of letters for 1/20 seconds -subjects report half -do they actually see entire array briefly? |
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Sperling (1960) |
flashed array -> played cue tone to indicated which row to report -> subject rarely missed letter results: Iconic memory - fleeting, photographic memory -for a few tenths of a second, we can recall any part of an image in great detail Echoic memory -sensory memory for auditory stimulus -last 3-4 seconds -if you temporarily focus elsewhere, you can recover what you heard for the next few seconds |
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Working (short-term) memory
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We can focus on processing 7(+/- 2) items at one time Without rehearsal, information fades away withing seconds and is forgotten Peterson & Peterson: -subjects asked to remember 3-consonant groups -prevented subjects from rehearsing by counting backward by threes -AFter 3 seconds, subjects recalled letters only half the time -After 12 seconds, recalled 13% of time -without active processing (rehearsal), short-term memories dies quickly |
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Long-Term Memory |
Our capacity for permanent, long-term memories is virutally limitless A particular memory is not stored in one discrete precise location - many areas involved |
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Retrieval |
3 measures of retrieval: Recall – person must retrieve information withouthelp or prompting (ex:fill-in-the-blank test) Recognition – person only needs to identify itemspreviously learned (ex:multiple-choice test) Relearning – person is assessed on the amount of timesaved when learning material for a second time |
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Retrieval cues |
When encoding a pieceof information, you associate it with other bits of information. These other bits ofinformation are like HINTS about the target information that act as retrieval cues that you can use to access the target information whenyou want to retrieve it later. Retrieval cue – words, events, places, and emotions that trigger ourmemory of the past The more retrieval cues you have, the better your chances of finding thememory! |
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Priming |
Activating a retrieval cue that leads to particular memory |
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Forgetting: Encoding Failure |
Encoding Failure- Information never enters long-term memory We only attend to a small portion of what we sense Ex. letters on telephone button, details of penny rarely do people process and encode these details |
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Forgetting: Storage Decay |
Ebbinghauss: - Learned list of nonsense syllables - Tested his recall at various times overnext 30 days - Findings: forgetting occurs veryquickly at first, but levels off over time. |
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Forgetting: Retrieval Failure |
occurs when memory is there, but something prevents you from finding it. (lack of retrieval cues) ex. a name on tip of your tongue |
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Interference |
Learning some items can interfere with retrieving others, especially when the two are similar. Proactive interference Something you learned in the past interferes with the recall of something you learned more recently. It is interference in the forward (in time) direction. Retroactive interference Something you learn interferes with the recall of something you learned in the past. It is interference in the backward (in time) direction |
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Misinformation |
Misinformation effect - misremembering an event due to incorporation of misleading information into the memory of an event. Loftus & Palmer (1974): Showed subjects film of traffic accident One group asked how fast cars were going whenthey “hit” each other One group asked how fast cars were going whenthey “smashed into” each other “Smashed” group gave higher speed estimates “Smashed” group remembered seeing brokenglass Incorporating misinformation becomes easieras time goes by. The further in the pasta memory was learned, the more likely that misinformation will have an effect. |
