Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Psychophysics |
study of relationship between physical properties of stimuli and the psychological impression of these stimuli. Prior extremepositions: a) Solipsistic claim: we can only know our own privateexperience b) Naïve realism: we see external things exactly as they are Measurement of thresholds =small opening into world of private experience. Psychophysicschallenges naïve realism, because it demonstrated that there were measurablestimulus values outside of our awareness (thresholds of awareness) |
|
|
1) Threshold 2) Difference threshold |
1) = minimal or maximal stimulus intensity that isdetected 50% of the time 2) =minimal stimulus difference that is detectable 50% of the time |
|
|
Aesthesiometer |
= compass likeinstrument to measure tactile sensitivity --> 2points are stimulated, “are both felt or just one?” |
|
|
ErnstWeber (1795-1878) |
Discovered inhibitionof heart action following stimulation of vagus nerve, showing that a) Inhibition = common phenomenon in CNSb) A balance between inhibition & excitation is necessaryfor normal function Weber’s illusion Just noticeable difference (jnd) |
|
|
Weber’s illusion |
= experience of divergence of 2 points (2 points appear to spread apart) when moved over insensitive areas, and convergence of 2 points when moved over sensitive areas |
|
|
Just noticeable difference (jnd) Weber's law |
= the smallest detectable difference between a standard and a comparison · Weber observed a law-like relationship: the amount that must be added/reduced to perceive a jnd is a function of the amount of existing stimulation ---> created first formula to bridge physical and psychological worlds |
|
|
GustavFechner (1801-1887) |
a monist,regarding body & soul as a double manifestation of one and the same realthing Profiled 2 opposingview of the universe: a) Night view = basic stuff of the universe (including mentalphenomena) = inert matter (extremely materialistic position) b) Day view = All things have a psychic component, any organic wholehas psychic qualities --> hoped his work wouldprovide evidence for “day view” Furthered Weber’s lawinto Fechner’s law Response compression (the difference between 100 and200 watts seems greater than the difference between 200 and 300 watts) 3 methods: limits, constant stimuli & average error |
|
|
Method of limits (method of“just noticeable difference”): |
Present stimulus with comparison stimuli of greater and lesser values, which are presented in ascending & descending order --> point at which difference is first noticed or no longer detected Also absolute thresholds: point at which a tone is first detected (quietest sound we can hear) Method of choice for preliminary studies Errors of habituation = common in graded series |
|
|
|
Whether comparison stimulus is equal to, greater than or weaker thanstandard stimulus Whether stimulus is detected or not detected (random stimuliintensities are presented and range of what is/isn’t detectable is established) Avoids errors of habituation |
|
|
Method of average error(method of adjustment): |
Allows subject to manipulate a comparison stimulus until it seems tomatch standard stimulus. Then the actual difference between the standard and comparisonstimuli is measured. |
|
|
RudolphLotze (1817-1881) |
Wrote “Medizinische Psychologie oder Physiologieder Seele”, = considered first book on physiological psychology "Theory of local signs" Left no formal systemof psychology but influenced key figures like Helmholtz and Wundt |
|
|
Theory of local signs |
Rudolph Lotze : - External object consists of several colors, contours, surfaces etc., each resulting in a “brightnessintensity” (= “local sign”) on retina. - Relationship between “local signs on retina” and points on external object = ambiguous & unstable because of head/eye movements - But over time, “relational discriminations” are established, which become cues for depth perception |
|
|
Hermann von Helmholtz |
One of last scholarsthat produced cutting-edge research in multiple scientific fields Wrote “Handbookof Physiological Optics” believedthat all movements within an organism = understandable in terms of physicallaws Visual Perception: 1) Retina, rods &cones and their contributions 2) Illusions, depthperception and color vision 3) "Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory” Acoustics & hearing: 1) Resonance theory ofhearing |
|
|
Helmholtz's empirical approach toperception “unconscious inference” |
Countless repetitions forge connections between sounds (words) andobjects in the world, allowing finer and finer discriminations. Process ofsense impressions = similar! The meaning of visual images must be learned. Emphasis on“unconscious inferences” built through countless repetitions |
|
|
"Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory” |
1) Aristotle: color = mixtures of lightness and darkness 2) Isaac Newton: properties oflight
3) Thomas Young: all colors can be produced with different combinations of red, green &blue. 3 types of retinal structures, each sensitive to a specificprimary color (anticipatedJohannes Mueller’s theory of specific nerve energies). 4) JamesMaxwell (1831-1879): “proved” Young’s trichromatic theory by showing abilityto produce any spectral value with mixtures of red, green & blue. --> Made Helmholtz finally embrace Young’s theory |
|
|
Resonance theory of hearing: |
Hermann von Helmholtz: identified possible physiological structures for pitch perception Speculated that fibers on basilar membrane of inner ear resonate to specific frequencies (extension on Mueller’s doctrine on specific energies?) |
|
|
Wilhelm Wundt |
Wundt’s laboratorypresents formal beginning of experimental psychology Weber,Fechner & Helmholtz had already established many tools, but someone wasneeded to agitate for institutional space & recognition Became Helmholtz’s assistant for 8 years University of Leipzig: intense productivity Revised his magnum opus“Principles of Physiological Psychology” through 6 editions Wundt changedpsychology from being regarded as a branch of philosophy into being seen as anindependent experimental science. When he died, the new discipline was rootedin major universities around the world. |
|
|
Wundt’s thoughts on Mind & Body: |
Rejected hylozoism (mind = manifested in all material movements) & dualistic Cartesian view (only humanshave mental functions) Believed that lowerlimits of mental function can be seen involuntary movements Disagreed withassumption that mind = real substance, instead it should be seen as the logicalsubject of internal experience Experience = central Believed in unity& interdependence of mental & physical processes (more similar toSpinoza’s double-aspect monism than to a mind-body dualism)’ |
|
|
Wundt’s Voluntarism: |
= The name hepreferred to call his ‘system of thought’ = NOT the same asfree will To be free, an actionmust be voluntary, but not all voluntary acts are free Free will = onlypossible when we attain a truly reflective self-consciousness A voluntaristic psychology emphasizespsychological causality. Thus, psychologicalmotives or “ideas accompanying the voluntary act” are studied |
|
|
Wundt's broader vision |
Mostly studiedreflexes, associations & vision; or Sensation, perception & reactiontimes Found thatsimultaneous stimulation of neighbouring nerves led to either inhibitory orexcitatory effects on reflex activity. Realized thatinhibition = central to adaptive & voluntary behaviours |
|
|
Wundt's definition of psychology & his "Elements" |
Definition ofpsychology = a science that investigates the facts of consciousness Pure sensations =mental elements. However, a simplesensation on the psychological side = not simple on physiological side |
|
|
Wundt: sensation, perception, idea |
Sensation = element of consciousness
Perception = combination of outward sense impressions
Idea = combinations that may come from memory, previous associations etc.
Wundt questioned validity if distinction between perception & idea |
|
|
Wundt's tridimensional theory of feeling |
Developed this theorythrough introspective studies Based on 3dimensions: pleasure/pain, strain/relaxation, excitation/quiescence · Certain sensationsresult in certain feelings (e.g. colors/music may produce relaxation or strain |
|
|
Wundt on Association & Apperception |
Associations =passive combinations Apperceptions =active combinations Example: school, house, garden, build, ground, stones= associations, but these are haphazard, aimless and not well connected Apperceptions haveintelligent direction within a larger context & marked with inner unity |
|
|
Wundt's "Creative Synthesis Principle" |
Believed in inherent indeterminations in psychic compounds --> there is real novelty and creativity in higher mental operations
This novelty = creative synthesis = the fact that in all psychological combinations, the product is not a mere sum of the separate elements, but it represents a new creation
Creative synthesis = seen in principle of heterogony of ends (= the emergence of new motives during course of chain of activities) |
|
|
Emil Kraepelin |
Wundt’s student Advanced a theory ofschizophrenia Pioneer in field of psychopharmacology Crucial role in development ofcriminal psychology: criminal behaviour should be considered a mental illness& urged use of psychiatric treatment in prisons |
|
|
Lightner Witmer |
Wundt’s student Founder of clinical psychology Believed in close tied betweenscientific & clinical psychology Research on pain perception& learning disorders |
|
|
System |
= organised way of envisioning the world = philosophy of life, or 'worldview' Characteristics: 1) Systems provide definitions (of psychology) 2) Systems include assumptions 3) System prescribe methodologies 4) System specifies subject matter of an area 5) can be open or closed (restricts flow of ideas) 6) Systems differ with respect to time (emphasis on past vs. present) 7) Systems vary along the liberal-conservative continuum |
|
|
Titchener |
identified with Wundt's professional style & hard-core scientific work, but not with his larger philosophical vision brought Wundt's work to the US (translated several of his works) Created "Society of Experimentalists" (due to frustrations with APA) Named his system: "structuralism" |
|
|
Titchener: Subject matter of Psychology |
All science begins with experience. But experience can be considered from different points of view. Thus experience is dependant on the experiencing person. |
|
|
Titchener: Problems of Psychology |
first problem: to identify the basic "elements" of experience (irreducible sensations or simple images) second: to assess ways in which elements combine third: to determine causal relations in these phenomena |
|
|
Titchener: Method of Psychology |
all scientific work begins with observation observation = called introspection |
|
|
Titchener: Scope of Psychology |
the range of the mind = as broad as the range of animal life scope of psychology = very broad Realized importance of studying different kinds of consciousness (esp. normal conscious processes) |
|
|
Titchener: Sensations |
Senses = window to the mind Sensations = elements of perceptions Images = elements of ideas, memories, thoughts Affections = elementary processes of emotion Interested in attributes of elementary processes: found that all sensations have a minimum of 4 attributes (quality, intensity, clearness & duration) |
|
|
Titchener: The Mind |
Mind & body = 2 aspects of the same world of experience. They cannot influence each other because they are not separate. = psychophysical parallelism |
|
|
Titchener: Attention |
distinguished between passive/involuntary attention --> PRIMARY attention and active/voluntary attention --> SECONDARY attention 3rd stage of attention = relapse into primary attention secondary attention continually reverts to primary attention |
|
|
Titchener: Association |
all associations can be reduced to a law of contiguity law of association: When a sensory process occurs in consciousness, it is likely that all sensory processes which occurred with it previously will reappear. |
|
|
Titchener: Meaning |
Meaning = context
Context theory of meaning:
A set of sensations will be supplemented by memories of similar previous encounters. The set of sensations has a background/context, and this context is the equivalent of its meaning. |
|
|
James-Lange Theory of Emotion |
stressed he dependence of emotions on the vasomotor system. We experience emotions because of bodily events. I.e. if we see a bear, we run, and then we are afraid (emotion = product of the running) = paradoxical, because according to common sense we are afraid because of the bear |
|
|
Titchener and the James-Lange Theory of Emotion |
Problems: 1) bodily changes may appear the same in very different emotions (tears of joy and of rage) 2) mere sensations of organic conditions (running) = not the same as complex experience of emotion. Experience of emotion may have multiple causes. |
|
|
Titchener: Affect & Emotion |
Discussed the difficulties of classifying emotions Sentiment = more complex than emotion. Involves discrimination, critical dimension etc. 3 elementary mental processes: 1) sensations 2) images 3) affections Initially affections = elements of emotion But later: are affections only sensations of pleasantness or unpleasantness? Also: are images just a form of sensation? |
|
|
Margaret Floy Washburn belonged to which system? |
accepted Titchener's emphasis on consciousness, but doubted that it consisted of irreducible static elements. She was too much of an empiricist to reject the mental world rejected Cartesian interactionism (mental substance that can go at it alone in the body) accepted epiphenomenalism because: friendly to both mental & physical world, but assumes that force always goes from the physical to the mental. Her willingness to seek harmony between conflicting systems = rare in her day |
|
|
Margaret Floy Washburn |
leader in comparative psychology ("the Animal Mind") speculated about role of distance receptors argued for a rigorous methodology motor theory of consciousness: mental activity has its origin in and is supported by physiological movement systems (incipient muscular movements support ongoing mental activity: dog sees food it cannot get to: makes tentative movements towards it. |
|
|
Franz Brentano |
alternative to Wundt's & Titchener's systems "act psychology": rejected exclusive alignment of physiology & scientific psychology. Focus of psychology should be on experience in itself, rather than mere contents or associations. Experience = forward looking, active, manipulative, intentional Accepted Aritotelian approach to empiricism: activity = fundamental essence of empiricism |
|
|
Franz Brentano's Psychology |
psychology = science of mental phenomena, and mental phenomena = real envisioned a psychology broad in scope. optimistic about application of psychology --> forerunner of applied psychology methodology: pluralistic & developmental epistemology |
|
|
Brentano is a key figure in history of psych because? |
appropriate conceptual work = higher priority than experimental work. = like Descartes: in conflict between experiment & reason we should embrace reason. |
|
|
Franz Brentano: Key Concepts |
distinguished between inner perception & inner observation (= introspection, = impossible). Inner perception: involves retrospection. You perceive inner events by focusing attention on the immediate past. Would change course title from"Sensation & Perception" to "Sensing & Perceiving". Preferred active verbs to passive nouns because: experience = active Strong believer in unity of consciousness and in a self that is in possession of experience. The self = a reality that ties past & present together, as well as future intentions. |
|
|
Franz Brentano: the Mind |
physical phenomena = objects (sounds, colors) mental phenomena = acts that contain objects (hearing a sound, admiring a color) Unique feature of mental act = its intentionality, complexity & involvement, not just mere awareness Divided mental phenomena into: 1) Presentations 2) Desires 3) Judgements |
|
|
Carl Stumpf |
pioneer in study of acoustic psychology: wrote "Tonpsychologie" (music = his central focus) his work was founded on holistic assumption that all aspects of consciousness are connected = unity Founded the "phonograph archives": vast collection of music recordings from different cultures Corresponded with William James Criticised Wundt's research, esp. on acoustics. Mental life of children; Studied his own kids. |
|
|
Georg Muller |
took road less travelled: emphasis on extensive laboratory work --> very productive worked on memory & association. One of the first to study perseveration --> led to breach in theory that train of thoughts depends entirely on association. Also pointed to existence of a separate short-term memory process. Emphasised importance of psychological variables: performance also depends on variables like attitude or mental set. Liberal approach to science, openness to women as scientists |
|
|
Oswald Kuelpe |
combined some of Brentano's act psychology with Wundt's experimental psychology middle road between naive realism & idealism (maybe 'critical realism?') assumed the independent existance of objects & processes in the world, but aware that we know about objects in the world only through experience. "Imageless thought": created controversy: there are objective meanings in experience that are not associated with specific words/signs/symbols. Distinguished between recollection & remembering Mental set = a predisposition to respond in a given manner. = accounts for much variability in the way people solve problems Like Fechner, interested in aethetics. Harmony, orderliness, symmetry require less perceptual effort Imagined psychology with broad scope Influence: 1) experimental psychology now included higher mental operations 2) his student Max Wertheimer: founder of Gestalt Psychology |
|
|
Hermann Ebbinghaus |
one of the most important pioneers of psychology remembered for: development of the nonsense syllable & the first quantitative studies on memory radiant personality, cooperative (antithesis of Wundt) |
|
|
Postman: Principles of Ebbinghaus that foreshadowed later developments in psychology |
1) psychology should be divorced from philosophy & take its place among the natural sciences 2) no longer was psychology limited to study of simple sensations, now higher mental operations could be studied (!) 3) methodological and theoretical eclecticism: he focused on finding more modest tools appropriate to a limited domain (i.e. memory) instead of looking for a grand method for the entire discipline 4) reconciliation of pure & applied psychology: he regarded the distinction as superficial. Problems were important in themselves, its the context the decides the distinction. |
|
|
Ebbinghaus's contribution to applied Psychology |
work of mental testing: pioneer in use of the "completion test" as a way of assessing the cognitive capacities of school children. --> these tests provide a context, and student must make a logical conclusion. Example: analogy --> "if an elephant is big, a mouse is _______" |
|
|
What inspired Ebbinghaus to conduct his experimental study on memory? |
Gustav Fechner's "Elements of Psychophysics" |
|
|
Ebbinghaus's memory study |
goal was to apply Fechner's methods to a new dimension of mental life memory = learning, retention, association, reproduction before, memory had only been studied after it had developed. But but his new approach involved the memorial process from start to finish. |
|
|
Ebbinghaus's nonsense syllable |
he realized that previous associations contaminated the speed of learning developed nonsense syllable to neutralize the effects of prior associations. |
|
|
Ways Ebbinghaus controlled conditions of initial learning |
1) developed nonsense syllable to neutralize the effects of prior associations. 2) controlled learning speed my memorizing to the beat of a metronome 3) minimized effects of intonation/accent by rehearsing while paying attention to the stress of the voice. 4) controlled motivation & effort 5) conducted his work at same time each day & kept all conditions in his life as constant as possible. |
|
|
Ebbinghaus's findings on memory |
1) 7 syllables was the number he could usually recite after just one recitation (it took 16.6 repetitions to learn a list of 12) 2) Ebbinghaus forgetting curve: rapid forgetting over first 2 days, then slowing over subsequent days. |
|
|
functionalism vs. structuralism |
Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness (structuralism), functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior.
Structuralism focused on "what" questions, functionalism focused on "how"questions
While structuralism was interested in drawing a generalized structural picture of the process, functionalism was more interested in what made organisms different from one another than what made them similar.
|
|
|
Functionalism |
emphasis on developmental, adaptive, dynamic features of experience also on individual differences central focus = adaptation most important figure = William James = a reaction to structuralism, aims to explain mental processes by focusing on the PURPOSE of consciousness/behavior. Inspired by "theory of natural selection" by Darwin ----> unless characteristics (like mental processes) served some sort of purpose, they would not have survived. |
|
|
Structuralism |
aims to describe the structure of the mind in terms of the most primitive elements of mental experience. It focused on the breaking down of the brains mental processes into its basic components. These basic components were then attempted to be discovered by a method known as "introspection" (= the examination/observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes) |
|
|
Structuralism vs. functionalism keypoints |
Structuralism vs. functionalism: 1) FOUNDATION: Philosophy vs. Science 2) APPROACH: Theory vs. Practice 4) TOOL: Introspection vs. Scientific studies 5) KNOWLEDGE: Knowledge is instinct vs. Knowledge is learned 6) AQUIRING KNOWLEDGE: Self-awareness vs. Life experience 7) FOCUS: Inner mind vs. Behavior, organism, and environment 8) SUPPORT: Nomothetic generalization vs. Evolutionary theory 9) POSITION: Criticized vs. Accepted |
|
|
William James |
trained in medicine/physiology, but not in psychology or philosophy even though he was a professor of both! his psychology = enormous breadth in subject matter & methodologies pioneer in psychology of religion & education founder of "pragmatism" & functionalism first to understand idea that relations are as real as the things related (--> social psych) founded psych laboratory at Harvard wrote classic textbook "Principles of Psychology" later in life his interest shifted from psychology to philosophy |
|
|
Structuralism focused on __________ questions, functionalism focused on __________questions |
Structuralism focused on "what" questions, functionalism focused on "how"questions |
|
|
General characteristics of William James's thought |
1) sensitivity to people and their problems 2) openness 3) believability 4) importance of the individual 5) multiple levels of analysis (molecular, psychological, biological, philosophical) --> 6) --> methodological pluralism 7) belief in free will 8) concern with what people SHOULD do 9) radical empiricism 10) pragmatism |
|
|
William James & Free will |
struggled intensely on this subject leaves room for a methodological determinism for science, but rejected metaphysical determinism (= hard determinism = free will does not exist) used to be a determinist, but emotional crisis in 1870's led him to say: "my first act of free will, will be to believe in free will" |
|
|
According to William James, determinism is more consistent with _________, while belief in free will is more consistent with __________. |
According to William James, determinism is more consistent with "monism", while belief in free will is more consistent with "pluralism". |
|
|
William James's moralistic psychology |
concerned with what people SHOULD do: distinguishes between 1) "easygoing mood" = lazy 2) "strenuous mood" = we seize opportunities & work with energy and enthusiasm We all have capacity for "strenuous mood" bt it must be cultivated. --> do sth every day for the simple reason that you don't want to do it |
|
|
William James's radical empiricism |
preferred name for his philosophy the only things that should be debatable among philosophers, should be things definable in terms drawn from experience radical: -experiences shall not be ignored -we have the right to exclude things that are not definable -we must find a place for everything that is part of experience -monism is a hypothesis monism = not comprehensive/responsive enough to the breadth of human experience in an ever changing world |
|
|
William James's pragmatism |
for him pragmatism = method, theory of truth & a way of thinking about the world pragmatic method = beliefs & practices are judged by the work they accomplish in the world |
|
|
William James's definition of psychology |
psychology = science of mental life, both mental phenomena & their conditions = study of mental processes phenomena = feelings, desires, cognitions conditions of mental life = bodily & social processes that influence mental life |
|
|
William James & habit |
habits = aquired through learning & eductaion \goal of education = instilling good habits habits do for individual & society what flywheel does for its engine: smoothes operation & keeps it running |
|
|
William James & stream of thought |
In our normal experience we do not have simple sensations, rather consciousness is shaped by continuities, relations & complexities. 5 characteristics of stream of thought: 1) thoughts are personal and "owned" (if not mental illness may result - manifestations of secondary personal selves) 2) thoughts are constantly (!) changing (experience of constancy = an illusion, via inattention) 3) thought is characterised y continuity rather than separation 4) human thought conveys something other than itself: it is cognitive 5) selectivity, discrimination, choice & shifting interests = in the very nature of human thought |
|
|
William James & the self |
the self includes the totality of things that belong to us (i.e. friends, reputation, memory) 3 constituents of the self: 1) material self: clothing, family, possessions 2) social self: we have a variety of selves, one for each person that recognizes us 3) spiritual self (= personal, subjective, intimate): it's a source of will & change and it is more permanent than the others. PLUS the "pure ego" |
|
|
Self-esteem according to William James |
self-esteem = a function of the ratio of our success and our pretensions (success over pretensions) |
|
|
William James & emotions |
James Lange theory of emotion: = counterintuitive: bodily changes are what produces emotion you see a bear, run, get afraid (because you RAN, not because you saw a bear) |
|
|
William James & instincts |
instincts: chicks born without hen, will follow any moving object believed that habit & conditioning may gradually build on & replace instincts instincts are transient: i.e. instinct to follow fades after time believed instincts were important early in life, and less so later. |
|
|
William James & memory |
1) primary memory = memory of immediate past 2) secondary memory = proper memory = knowledge of previous events that are not currently part of attention interested in utility & irregularities of forgetting |
|
|
William James's Legacy |
1) any monism = a hypothesis 2) encouraged us to pursue alternatives 3) he remains relevant, his major works are in print today! 4) studied ecological implications of pluralism, pragmatism etc. --> similarities between Jamesian metaphysics & the much later emerging discipline of ecology |
|
|
Hugo Muensterberg |
-student of Wundt, but critical of him -action theory of behaviour -huge pioneer in applied psychology -forerunner forensic/legal & clinical psychology -huge pioneer in industrial/organizational psychology (I-O) systematic approach to treatment: therapist should adjust treatment to the patient treatment outcomes depend on: 1) confidence of therapist 2) empathy of therapist 3) expectations of patient |
|
|
G. Stanley Hall |
Clark University big figure in functionalism known for his energy & enthusiasm, and breadth & freshness of perspective psychology of childhood, life-span development |
|
|
G. Stanley Hall on racial issues: |
despite racist themes that emerge in his writings he reached across cultural divides: -published anonymous paper that challenged racist assumptions -provided opportunities for underrepresented staff & students -one of the few that encouraged African American students to enroll in graduate studies: under his direction Francis Summer became 1st African American to get PhD in psych. |
|
|
G. Stanley Hall's major achievements |
1) founded & edited many journals 2) founded and organized the APA 3) brought Sigmund Freud & Carl Jung to the US 4) his department produced a great number of doctoral students 5) his enormous scholarly output |
|
|
G. Stanley Hall's Psychology |
focus of early research = psychology of childhood (incredibly productive) Long term interest = life-span development his final book = the study of aging) work of child study met a great public need and elevated visibility & status of psychology |
|
|
Functionalism & University of Chicago |
functionalist perspective was nowhere more articulated than at University of Chicago -John Dewey -James Angell -Harvey Carr (Angell's student) |
|
|
John Dewey |
America's most important philosopher of education key role in launching functionalism & progressive education philosophy must begin with experience. Experience should not be dissected into artificial units. democracy = more than form of government, = a way of life, and should be taught in schools |
|
|
James Angell |
made the functionalist views set out by Dewey more systematic. 3 marks of functionalism: 1) it involves mental "operations" rather than mere "stuff" of mental experience 2) it is concerned with the conditions that evoke a mental state (a mental state has a context, it doesn't exist in isolation) 3) mental states must be considered in terms of how they contribute to the furtherance of the sum of adaptive organic activities |
|
|
Harvey A. Carr |
consolidation & extension of functionalism student of Angell psychology = concerned with mental activity (= acquisition, retention, organisation, evaluation of experience, plus their subsequent utilization to guide behaviour) type of behaviour that reflects mental activity can be adaptive or adjustive (it alters a situation to satisfy a motivating stimulus) used variety of methods, investigated animal cognition, believed in psychology broad in scope freedom = acquired through knowledge |
|
|
Carr & method |
psychologist should not be doctrinaire about method, but first & foremost attend to the nature of the problem |
|
|
Columbia University |
James Cattell, Robert Woodworth |
|
|
James Cattell |
one of psychology's most colorful & controversial figures published only a few papers, and his research program failed (!) he found fame through his editorial & administrative skills worked in Stanley Hall's laboratory, first American to earn PhD in experimental psychology from Wundt & then worked with Galton Galton's obsession with measurement of physical & mental attributes had profound influence on him |
|
|
James Cattell's failed research |
tried to develop mental tests that had predictive efficiency. He measured reaction times, visual & auditory acuity, grip-strength etc. his measurements correlated with nothing --> killed his career focused on editing & founding journals --> central role in the communication of scientific information |
|
|
Robert Woodworth |
key figure in area of motivation 3 noteworthy ideas: 1) extended the term "experimental" to more fields & kinds of research 2) emphasis on motivation 3) influential textbooks, still in print called his approach "dynamic psychology": focus on understanding the cause of behaviour. argued that S-R concept (stimulus-response) should be replaced by the S-O-R concept (stimulus-organism-response), that emphasized the role of the organism in the sequence --> motives, attitudes etc. influence the S-R sequence best known for studies with Thorndike on transfer-training. developed early personality tests to evaluate soldiers in WW1 |
|
|
Woodworth & motivation |
did not believe that all motive originate in instincts or metabolic processes instead: focused on learned drives & activities with intrinsic, incentive value |
|
|
Woodworth: functional autonomy |
= the idea that a means or mechanism for satisfying a motive, may acquire drive properties. What started as a mere means (exercise to lose weight) is now sustained because of its intrinsic merits (endorphins, well being) |
|
|
Woodworth & the "experiment" |
narrowed what counted as an experiment distinguished between correlational & experimental research emphasised importance of independant & dependant variables |
|
|
Mary Calkins |
met all doctoral requirements but Harvard refused to grant the degree 14th president of APA psychology = science of the conscious self most visible advocate for self-psychology she viewed the mind as the ultimate reality if the self is the focus of psychology then there is room for a reconciliation of structuralism & functionalism developed "paired associate method" to study retention (short-term memory) |
|
|
Mary Calkins & dreams |
conducted one of the first studies on dreams (recorded her dreams for 55 nights) found that: -people dream every night -4 dreams per night is average -we can control our dreams to a certain degree |
|
|
Leta Stetter Hollingworth |
variability theory was used to describe gender differences (women = more variable) Thorndike was her prof/advisor she compared male & female infants on different physical characteristics and found no differences (before Pearson had done so similarly). She argued gender differences are due to differences in educational opportunities. also conducted research that showed that perceptual, motor and mental abilities of women = not adversely affected during menstrual cycle. Research on mentally disabled & gifted children |
|
|
Helen Wooley |
one of the first women to receive PhD in experimental psychology pioneer in educational psychology & the study of gender differences did a massive longitudinal study on school-dropouts, but no clear-cut results |
|
|
Binet & Intelligence Testing |
in terms of lasting impact on public institutions, the measurement of intelligence = the most significant psychological research in history after much trial & error, he attempted to measure intelligence differently than Galton or Cattell. Instead of looking at elementary processes like reaction times, he looked at more complex processes like memory or problem solving. He also gathered data on problems that children in various age groups could solve. Binet thought intelligence can be altered by education. Later on, intelligence became unchangeable aspect of a person --> Stanford-Binet intelligence scale |
|
|
Criticisms of functionalism |
1) it seems vague 2) it is eclectic and often inconsistent & incoherent 3) ignored basic problems and instead focused on applications much of todays psychology = functionalist explosion of interest i applied psych |
