Human Anat. And Phys. Lecture

Front 1

Anatomy*

Back 1

Study of structures and how they relate to other structures
goes beyond dissecting
macro/microscopic analysis

Front 2

Physiology

Back 2

Study of the function of the body's parts
all 11 organ systems work in unison to sustain human body, state referred to as homeostasis
function refers to biochemical reactions occuring inside cells in the human body

Front 3

Cytology

Back 3

Study of cells under a microscope

Front 4

Histology

Back 4

Study of tissues

Front 5

Frontal plane

Back 5

ventral/dorsal
anterior/posterior

Front 6

Sagittal plane(median plane)

Back 6

Z plane

Front 7

Transverse/cross-sectional plane

Back 7

horizontal cut

Front 8

Proximal vs distal

Back 8

Higher/ lower
the elbow is proximal to the wrist
the knee is distal to the thighs

Front 9

Body

Back 9

4 limbs, trunk and head
body erect
palms face forward
feet slightly apart
thumbs point away from body

Front 10

Body cavity(trunk)

Back 10

Ventral Body cavity
Dorsal body cavity

Front 11

Ventral body cavity

Back 11

thoracic body cavity
abdomino-pelvic cavity
two cavities separated by diaphragm

Front 12

Diaphragm

Back 12

separates ventral body cavity between superior thoracic cavity and inferior abdominal pelvic cavity

Front 13

Thoracic body cavity

Back 13

lungs, heart, trachea, esophagus

Front 14

Abdomino-pelvic cavity

Back 14

most of the digestive, urinary and reproductive organs

Front 15

Serous membranes

Back 15

separate organs from one another
surround organs in the ventral body cavity
responsible for compartmentalization inside the ventral body cavity

Front 16

Pericardial sac

Back 16

serous membrane which surrounds the heart in the thoracic cavity

Front 17

Pleural sac

Back 17

Serous membrane which surrounds the lungs

Front 18

Peritoneal sac

Back 18

Serous membranes which surrounds the organs in the abdominal-pelvic cavity

Front 19

Compartmentalization(functions)

Back 19

isolate each organ to prevent interference from neighboring organs
prevent spread of infection from one organ to the other
to hold organs in their right anatomical position
to protect against trauma(stress, shock)

Front 20

Anorexia

Back 20

can lead to disappearance of membrane between ureter and kidneys and can cause the ureters to wrap around the kidneys.

Front 21

Dorsal Body cavity

Back 21

two subcavities
superior cranial cavity(brain), inferior vertebral(spinal cord) cavity

Front 22

Central nervous system(CNS)

Back 22

brain+ spinal cord
located in the dorsal body cavity

Front 23

Meninges

Back 23

membranes that surround the brain and the spinal cord
Two different types of meninges

Front 24

Meningitis

Back 24

disease that occurs if pathogen enters brain
can be fatal

Front 25

9 v. 4 abdomino-pelvic divisions

Back 25

right/left upper quadrants
right/left lower quadrants
right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region
right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region
right iliac region, hypogastric region, left iliac region

Front 26

Levels of structural organization

Back 26

Chemical>cell>tissue>organ>organ systems>organismal

Front 27

Chemical level

Back 27

Atoms combine to form molecules

Front 28

Cellular level

Back 28

Cells made up of molecules
smallest structures in which biochemical reactions occur
Cells are the structural units of organism

Front 29

Tissue level

Back 29

tissues consist of similar cells placed together to form sheet like structures with specific functions.
4 types of tissue(muscle, nervous, epithelial, connective)
Most cells aggregate to from tissues(except spematozoa and erythrocytes)

Front 30

Organ level

Back 30

composed of 2 or more types of tissues which arrange into structures to perform a function

Front 31

Organ systems

Back 31

consist of at least two different organs that work together closely/ in a complementary way to bring about a desired effect in the human body

Front 32

Organismal

Back 32

Human body made up of many organ systems(11 organ systems)
all work in unison to sustain the organism> results in homeostasis

Front 33

Symptoms vs. signs

Back 33

symptoms are described, internal(e.g loss of appetite)
signs are visible, external

Front 34

Homeostatic imbalances

Back 34

lead to diseases

Front 35

Homeostasis(organ systems)

Back 35

Endocrine and nervous system responsible for homeostasis

Front 36

Cytology

Back 36

study of cells

Front 37

Histology

Back 37

study of tissues

Front 38

Structure(function)

Back 38

functions of a part of the body depends on the structure of the part
(makeup of the part in terms of cell types and tissue types)
Structure defines function
cellular/ tissue make-up of an organ dictates its function

Front 39

Human

Back 39

11 organs systems

Front 40

Homeostasis

Back 40

relatively constant internal environment maintained by the 11 organ systems even though the external environment is changing

Front 41

Homeostatic imbalance

Back 41

happens when at least 1 organ is not functioning properly.
if not corrected by the internal regulating systems(endocrine, nervous) it leads to disease

Front 42

Pathophysiology

Back 42

Disease caused by homeostatic imbalance

Front 43

Atom structure

Back 43

2nsquared
2 subatomic nucleus of 2 subatomic particles

Front 44

Biochemical reactions(basis)

Back 44

For atoms to achieve stability by having a complete outer-most shell(valence shell)

Front 45

Atom subatomic particles

Back 45

protons(positively charged), neutrons(not charged), electrons(negatively charged)
number of protons equals the number of electons

Front 46

Atomic number

Back 46

refers specifically to the number of protons in the atom

Front 47

Electron arrangement

Back 47

first shell(closest to nucleus accommodates two electrons
2nd shell 8 electrons
3rd can accommodate up to 18 electrons but because of octet rule
the atom achieves stability with 8 electrons

Front 48

Unreactive v. reactive atoms

Back 48

Reactive atoms have valence/outermost shells that are not complete
Accept electrons(form chemical bonds)
to achieve stability

Front 49

Chemical bonds

Back 49

3 types of chemical bonds

Front 50

Covalent bonds

Back 50

atoms share electrons to achieve stability

Front 51

Types of compounds

Back 51

inorganic(no carbon chain) vs. organic compounds(carbon chains, non-polar covalent bond)

Front 52

Water

Back 52

Polar covalent compound
Universal solvent> all biochemical reactions occurring in the cells require water to produce water
hydration or dehydration reactions

Front 53

Blood

Back 53

slightly warmer than body temperature
water in blood absorbs heat to maintain core value temperature
38C

Front 54

High heat of vaporization

Back 54

increase in the body temperature results in reflex sweating
vaporization of water from the surface of the skin requires increase in temperature
used for vaporization> decrease in body temperature(cooling)

Front 55

Acids

Back 55

H+ or proton donor
hydrogen atomic#1 if electron donated becomes H+(proton)

Front 56

pH

Back 56

increase in H+ causes decrease in pH, increase in acidity
= -log10[H+]

Front 57

Bases

Back 57

proton acceptors

Front 58

Blood pH

Back 58

strictlty maintained between 7.35-7.45
critical for the optimal function of enzymes

Front 59

Acidosis

Back 59

blood pH under 7.4

Front 60

Alkalosis

Back 60

blood pH above 7.4

Front 61

Buffers

Back 61

Chemicals that prevent changes in blood pH
two components(H+ acceptor, H+ donor)

Front 62

Buffer system (situational)

Back 62

drop in blood pH>binds H+ to raise blood pH back into normal range
rise in blood pH>releases H+ to decrease blood pH back into normal

Front 63

Salts

Back 63

ionic compounds(cation+anion)
dissociates in water into cations and anions
NaCl>Na+ + Cl-

Front 64

Electrolytes

Back 64

cations and anions
ions which mediate many physiological processes
Ca2+> mediates muscle contraction
Na+, K+ action potentials> electrical signals produced by neurons for communication

Front 65

Organic compounds

Back 65

4 organic compounds
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,

Front 66

Carbohydrates

Back 66

hydrated carbon
(CH2O)n n indicates the number of carbons in the chain
3 types of carbohydrates
monosaccharides, disaccharide, polysaccharides

Front 67

Monosaccharides

Back 67

building blocks of the other two types of carbohydrates
Monosaccharide(CH2O)n
n=5 pentose
n=6 hexose

Front 68

Pentose sugars I

Back 68

2 types of pentose
deoxyribose and ribose
found in nucleic acids
DNA(deoxyribose) and RNA(ribose)

Front 69

Pentose sugars II

Back 69

form part of the nucleic acids and the two types of nucleic acids are named for the type of pentose sugar present.

Front 70

Nucleic acids

Back 70

deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)

Front 71

Hexose sugars

Back 71

n=6
3 types of hexose sugars
glucose, galactose, fructose
GLUFRUGAL

Front 72

Disaccharides

Back 72

Second type of carbohydrates
3 types
maltose, sucrose, lactose
all involve glucose

Front 73

Maltose

Back 73

mangag
glucose+glucose

Front 74

Sucrose

Back 74

SINGLU Fruit
glucose+fructose

Front 75

Lactose

Back 75

LEGAL
glucose+galactose

Front 76

Polysaccharides

Back 76

storage forms of glucose in plant cells and in animal cells
in plants: STARCH
in animals: GLYCOGEN

Front 77

Carbohydrates(functions in body)

Back 77

1-2% of cell mass
cells metabolize glucose via glycolysis to produce energy
pentose sugars which form part of the backbone of the nucleic acid
glucose attached to lipids>glycolipids
glucose attached to proteins>glycoproteins

Front 78

Glycolipids and glycoproteins

Back 78

on the surface of cells in the plasma membrane
act as signal molecules or "molecule markers"
glycolipids:carbohydrates(glycogen) attached to the phospholipids
glycoproteins:carbohydrates(glycogen) attached to integral proteins.

Front 79

Glycocalyx

Back 79

glycolipids and glycoproteins rich area on the surface of the plasma membrane
Pattern of arrangement of glucose is unique for each cell type.
Changes in pattern indicative of cell turning cancerous
> allows pre-cancerous cells to evade immune cells because they can't recognize and attack these cells
if there is a change in this area, signal given to immune system
makes the surface of the cell fuzzy and sticky

Front 80

Glycogen

Back 80

acts as a storage form of energy
body can storee up to 500-600 g of glycogen
excess glucose beyond glycogenesis(glucose>glycogen process) turned into fat for storage

Front 81

Lipogenesis

Back 81

process by which glucose is converted to fat

Front 82

Lipids

Back 82

4 types of lipids
neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids
lipoproteins

Front 83

neutral fats I

Back 83

triglycerides(triacyglycerols)
unsaturated(liquid at room temperature) vs. saturated(solid at room temperature)

Front 84

neutral fats II

Back 84

HDL-HLD(low-density)

Front 85

Protein combination

Back 85

since lipids are insoluble in water, in an aqueous environment(as in the body). Lipids transported as lipoproteins> lipids surrounded by proteins

Front 86

Lipoproteins

Back 86

3 types(vlDLs)
high amount of lipids>protein
major lipid in vlDL>triglycerides

Front 87

Triglyceride

Back 87

major lipid in the human diet
transported by vlDLs
major lipid in vlDls
most concentrated form of stored energy
1 gram of glycogen>glucose>4kcal
1 gram of glyceride>glucose>9kcal

Front 88

VLDLS

Back 88

transport triglycerides to the adipose cells in adipose tissue for storage
No limit to fat storage in adipose cells to the body

Front 89

Adipose tissue

Back 89

provides protection to organs in body
protection against trauma
Heart, eyes..> surrounded by fat
holds organs in their right anatomical portion

Front 90

Adipose capsule

Back 90

holds/surrounds each kidney to hold the kidney in its right anatomical position
excessive weight loss whereby the adipose capsule around the kidney is depleted, the kidneys drop from their anatomical positions
ureter coming out of kidneys twist(kink) to prevent drainage of urine from kidneys>kidneys destroyed(renal failure)

Front 91

Low density lipoprotein(LDLs)

Back 91

high amount of lipids>protein

Front 92

Cholesterol

Back 92

major lipid in LDL
inserts in lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane>stabilize the membrane>"cholesterol maintains the integrity of the plasma membrane"
required for the synthesis of all steroid hormones

Front 93

LDL

Back 93

transport cholesterol to the plasma membrane to the steroidogenic cells(cells that produce steroid hormones in the body)

Front 94

Human body(cholesterol)

Back 94

human synthesize 85% of the cholesterol needed
supplement 15% from the diet
ingestion of cholesterol above 15% will result in increase in LDL.

Front 95

Increase in LDL

Back 95

results in the formation of atherosclerotic plaque in the internal surface of the blood vessels

Front 96

Atherosclerotic plaques

Back 96

decrease lumen of blood vessels
decrease blood flow through blood vessels(artery)
increase in blood pressure

Front 97

Hypertension

Back 97

sustained blood pressure increase
if untreated/poorly managed, results in the heart pumping harder against the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels
Heart increases in size to compensate for the increase in resistance
if heart increases to a point where its structural units(sarcomeres) are stretched, the heart becomes useless as a pump
hear can no longer pump blood
"a bigger heart is not necessarily a better pump"

Front 98

Cardiovascular disease

Back 98

if atherosclerotic plaque disloges from the internal surface of blood vessel, the plaque becomes free-floating and referred to as an embolus
referred to as a bullet

Front 99

Embolus

Back 99

lodges in the smaller blood vessel such as a coronary or cerebral veseel blocking blood supply to tissue beyond blockade>tissue eventually die"necrosis">dead tissue in organism

Front 100

Embolus(locations)

Back 100

in a coronary vessel>myocardial infarction(MI), heart attack
in a cerebral vessel > ischemia stroke="brain attack"

Front 101

LDL

Back 101

Bad cholesterol
increase in LDL causes hypertension, cardiomegala(enlarged heart)
, medical condition(heart too big)
"bigger heart is not necessarily a better pump"
elevated LDL causes myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke

Front 102

High-density lipoproteins(HDL)

Back 102

high amount proteins> lipid
major lipid in HDL is also cholesterol
Does not sit in blood stream
transports cholesterol to the liver for breakdown and elimination from the body
Hence HDL "good cholesterol"

Front 103

Phospholipids

Back 103

polar/hydrophilic head
non-polar hydrophobic tail

Front 104

Polar head

Back 104

refers to phosphorus containing group in the phospholipids
can interact with water

Front 105

Non-polar tail

Back 105

2 free fatty acids chain> hydrophobic

Front 106

Phospholipids(functions)

Back 106

used in the formation or assembly of the plasma membrane
form micelles, transport structures to the aqueous environment in the small intestine

Front 107

Micelles

Back 107

transport fatty elements in the small intestine simple columnar cell lining the small intestine
once there, fatty elements diffuse into the simple columnar cells.

Front 108

Eicosonoids

Back 108

4th type of lipids
derived indirectly from phospholipids
prostaglandins and leukotrienes

Front 109

Aspirin

Back 109

prevents formation of prostaglandins (e.g thromboxane A2) by inhibiting cyclooxygenase
prevents blood clots formation
recommended when an individual has thrombo-embolic disease

Front 110

Thromboxane A2

Back 110

prostanglandins required for hemostasis(stoppage or cessation of bleeding due to a broken blood vessel by the formation of blood clots).

Front 111

Proteins(classes)

Back 111

fibrous vs. globular proteins

Front 112

Fibrous proteins

Back 112

usually alpha helices or beta-pleated sheets
insoluble in water, extended/strand-like
structural proteins: provide mechanical support and tensile strength as main building material in the body

Front 113

Globular proteins

Back 113

compact/ball-likesoluble in water, sensitive to pH/temp. changes
functional proteins: mediate all biochemical reactions occurring in the body
achieve tertiary structure

Front 114

Proteins

Back 114

3rd type of organic compounds
formed by building block called amino acids
4 structural levels:primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Front 115

Primary structure

Back 115

indicates the type and the position of the amino acids
sequence of amino acids important for the folding and modification of protein
dictates the structural level attained by the protein and hence it indirectly dictates the function of the protein
Structure defines function

Front 116

Secondary structural level of protein

Back 116

2 types
alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets
primary structure is folded and held together by hydrogen bonds to form the two secondary structures
some proteins only achieve this structural level(e.g collagen)

Front 117

Third structural level:tertiary

Back 117

some proteins attain the tertiary structure
secondary structures are folded to from compact structures with depth, width, length resulting in the 3-dimensional structure of the protein

Front 118

Denaturation

Back 118

3D structure unravel destroying the active sites of the protein(e.g globular proteins sensitive to pH and temp.)

Front 119

Quaternary structure

Back 119

Only a few proteins in the human cell attain the quaternary structure modification(e.g hemoglobin)

Front 120

Secondary structural level:cellular

Back 120

cells are the structural units of cell organisms hence cells are the functional units of cell organisms.
biochemical reactions occur within cells to sustain organisms.

Front 121

Structure defines function

Back 121

The type of biochemical reactions occuring in the cell depends on the subcellular structures of cell at cellular level

Front 122

Reproduction

Back 122

continuity of species occurs at the cellular level
in the human at time of fertilization
sperm(male sex cell), ovum(female sex cell)

Front 123

Human body(SDF)

Back 123

200 types of cells based on structure
structure of each cell dictates its function

Front 124

Cell(regions)

Back 124

3 regions: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

Front 125

Plasma membrane I

Back 125

forms the outer boundary of the cell and is located in between two fluid compartments>extracellular(ECL) and intracellular(ICL) fluids

Front 126

Extracellular fluid

Back 126

blood plasma(3L) +interstitial fluid(12L)
Intestitial fluid is extra fluid that surrounds cells in the tisue

Front 127

Intracellular fluid

Back 127

25L

Front 128

Plasma membrane II (structure)

Back 128

composed of two rows/parallel sheets of phospholipids
polar heads interact with interstitial fluid and intracellular fluid
non-polar tails in core of the plasma membrane/between way from the aqueous environment

Front 129

Membrane proteins

Back 129

present on the plasma membrane
peripheral vs. integral protein

Front 130

Peripheral proteins

Back 130

attached to integral proteins or the phospholipids on the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane

Front 131

Integral proteins

Back 131

span the plasma membrane exposed on one surface or both surfaces of the plasma membrane
facilitated diffusion
if one both surfaces called transmembrane proteins

Front 132

Membrane junctios

Back 132

tight junction, desmosome, gap junction

Front 133

Tight junction

Back 133

fusion of integral proteins in plasma memmbrane of adjacent cells forming an impermeable junction

Front 134

Desmosome

Back 134

linker proteins extending from plaques on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane of adjacent cells interdigitate to hold cell together and prevent their separation
anchoring junction

Front 135

Gap junction

Back 135

formed by hollow cylinder called connexons
allows for rapid transfer of ion between cells
known as communicating junction

Front 136

Membrane transport

Back 136

Active vs. passive processes

Front 137

Passive processes

Back 137

Filtration & diffusion

Front 138

Diffusion(3 types)

Back 138

facilitated diffusion(plateau saturation can occur)
simple diffusion
osmosis

Front 139

Active processes

Back 139

active transport & vesicular transport

Front 140

Active transport

Back 140

movement of solute(ions) against a concentration gradient
need energy in the form of ATP

Front 141

Vesicular transport

Back 141

movement of bulky substances enclosed in vesicles(vesicles have a similar structure to the plasma membrane without glycocalyx)
Exocytosis vs. Endocytosis

Front 142

Endocytosis

Back 142

phagocytosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis
pinocytosis

Front 143

DIffusion

Back 143

movement of solute down concentration gradient
solutes moved from area of higher solute concentration to area to low solute concentration

Front 144

Simple diffusion

Back 144

lipid soluble solutes(hydrophobic solutes) cross the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient
e.g O2 carried by blood in blood vessels

Front 145

Facilitated diffusion

Back 145

substances that are polar, hydrophylic or charged cannot traverse the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane
substances are facilitated by transmembrane proteins to cross plasma membrane
exhibits specificity

Front 146

Transmembrane proteins

Back 146

also transport or carrier proteins
bind to a specific substance
substances that use facilitated diffusion(glucose, amino acid, H2O(polar covalent)

Front 147

Aquaporins

Back 147

carrier protein(transmembrane) for H2)

Front 148

Facilitated diffusion(saturation)

Back 148

when all the carrier proteins are engaged in transporting the substance, saturation is observed
x-axis=concentration
y-axis=amount transported

Front 149

Osmosis

Back 149

movement of water from area of low solute concentration to area of high solute concentration
movement of water from region of higher H20 concentration to region of lower H20 concentration

Front 150

Plasma membrane

Back 150

selective barrier

Front 151

Exocytosis

Back 151

movement of bulky substances from the interior of cell to the exterior.
e.g hormones, neurotransmitters released from cell via exocytosis

Front 152

Exocytosis(pathway)

Back 152

substance to be released enclosed in the vesicle
vesicle moves to plasma membrane and fuses with it
area of the plasma membrane ruptures to release the substances to the exterior of the cell

Front 153

Phagocytosis

Back 153

solid particles(clumps of bacteria, cell debris)
enclosed in vesicles made by the involution of the plasma membrane
vesicle detaches into the cell's cytoplasm
vesicle now called phagosome

Front 154

Phagosome

Back 154

vesicle in the plasma membrane which coalesces with the lysozomes

Front 155

Lysozomes

Back 155

cytoplasmic organelle
contains powerful digestive enzymes called lysozymes

Front 156

Lysozymes

Back 156

digest the content of phagosome
content destroyed

Front 157

Phagocytes

Back 157

special cells that undergo phagocytosis
have an elevated number of lysozomes

Front 158

Pinocytosis(pathway)

Back 158

transport of bulk fluid
movement of solution enclose in a pinocytic vesicle into the cell
vesicle coalesces with lysozome to digest the vesicle and release the solution
all cells in the body use pinocytosis

Front 159

Receptor mediated-endocytosis

Back 159

LDL taken into the steroidogenic cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis
LDL binds to LDL receptors(integral proteins) on the surface of the plasma membrane of the steroidogenic cells.
LDL-LDL receptor involutes into the cell enclosed in a clathrin-coated vesicle called coated pit
exhibits specificity
inside cell vesicle lose clathrin and coalesce with lysoszome
vesicle digested>content released

Front 160

Clathrin coat

Back 160

bristle-like structure

Front 161

Filtration

Back 161

movement of solution from area of higher pressure to area of lower pressure down a pressure concentration gradient

Front 162

Vesicular transport(special types)

Back 162

trancytosis, vesicular trafficking

Front 163

Trancytosis

Back 163

subtances enter cell via endocytosis and released on the opposite side of the cell via exocytosis
e,g substance from the blood into endothelial cells

Front 164

Vesicular trafficking

Back 164

intracellular movement of substance
e.g movement of newly synthesized protein from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus for processing

Front 165

Resting membrane potential(RMP)

Back 165

between -50 mV to -100mV
established by the partial/selective nature of the plasma membrane
Na+/K+ pump(active transport)
reinforces/maintains separation of charges at the plasma membrane

Front 166

Cytoplasm

Back 166

Inclusion, cytosol, cytoplasmic organelles

Front 167

Inclusions

Back 167

only 7 cells in the body such as skeletal muscle fibers, hepatocytes(liver cells), cells of the stratum basale of the epidermis will contain inclusions

Front 168

Cytoplasmic organelles

Back 168

Mitochondria, ribosomes

Front 169

MItochondria

Back 169

self-replicating
when the energy demand of the cell increases, the number of mitochondria increases
number of mitochondria reflects the energy demands of the cell
metabollicaly acitve cells have more mitochondria
site for aerobic catabolism of nutrients to yield more ATP.
Hence referred to as power house or power plants

Front 170

Mitochondria(glucose processing)

Back 170

Aerobic respiration(36ATP)
anaerobic catabolism (2ATP)

Front 171

RIbosomes

Back 171

non-membrane cytoplasmic organelles
2 types: free vs. bound
number fluctuates between two types
cell involved in protein synthesis will therefore have higher ribosomes

Front 172

Free ribosomes

Back 172

synthesize the soluble protein which stay inside the cells/ in the cytosol

Front 173

Bound ribosomes

Back 173

synthesize proteins which are exported to/destined for the plasma membrane and secreted out of the cell with exception of lysozomes
secretory cells(high number of bound ribosomes, prominent rough ER)
synthesize lysozomes which are vesicles that bud off the surface of the Golgi apparatus

Front 174

Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)

Back 174

smooth vs. rough ER

Front 175

Rough ER

Back 175

bound ribosomes
associated with the synthesis of phospholipids which are used in the synthesis of the plasma membrane
SInce associated with bound ribosomes>involved in the synthesis of the membrane proteins
hence, referred to as membrane factory

Front 176

Smooth ER

Back 176

no bound ribosomes
prominent in cells involve in detoxification such as hepatocytes(liver cells)
kidney cells have prominent smooth ER
cells involved in steroid hormone syntesis(steroidogenic) will also have prominent smooth ER
involved in glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to form glucose-6-phosphate
glucose-6-phosphate enters into glycolytic pathway for energy production

Front 177

Skeletal muscle(glycogen)

Back 177

store glycogen which undergoes glycogenolysis. Hence skeletal muscle fibers called glycolytic fibers willl have prominent smooth ER

Front 178

Hepatocytes(liver cells)

Back 178

drug detoxification and glycogenolysis
hence, have prominent smooth ER
glycogenolysis in hepatocytes will also yield glucose-6-phosphate
have unique enzyme that cleaves off phosphate group

Front 179

Hepatocytes II(glucose)

Back 179

glucose crosses the lipid bilayer of the hepatocytes via facilitated diffusion into blood to provide glucose to neurons in between meals.

Front 180

Golgi apparatus

Back 180

close association with rough ER
Golgi receives proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes and modifies, concentrates and tags proteins for their destination (secreted, plasma membrane, inside the cells)
Hence known as "traffic director"

Front 181

Tagged proteins

Back 181

phagocytosis, secretory cells

Front 182

Phagocytosis

Back 182

abundance of lysozomes
prominent Golgi apparatus

Front 183

Lysozomes

Back 183

membranous cytoplasmic organelles that bud off Golgi apparatus
have lysozyems that are involved in glycogenolysis

Front 184

Cells that contain a lot of lysozomes

Back 184

phagocytes
bone cells for the breakdown of calcium phosphate crystals to release ionic calcium to blood
hepatocytes> skeletal muscle fibers called glycolytic fibers

Front 185

Peroxisomes

Back 185

abundant in cells actively involved in catabolism of nutrients where free radicals are produced as by-products of catabolism

Front 186

Metabolicallly active cells

Back 186

have high number of mitochondria and high number of peroxisomes.

Front 187

Bond strenght

Back 187

weakest hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, polar covalent bonds,non-polar covalent bonds

Front 188

Exam 2

Back 188

Start

Front 189

Nucleus

Back 189

control center of cell
controls cell activity occurring inside a cell

Front 190

Nucleus(3 areas)

Back 190

Nuclear envelope(membrane)
nucleolus(nucleoli)
chromatin

Front 191

Nuclear membrane

Back 191

similar in composition to plasma membrane
but without glycocalyx
has nuclear pores

Front 192

Nuclear pores

Back 192

openings in the nuclear membrane
allow for the export of substances from the nucleus into the cytoplasm(e.g mRNA)
allow for the import of substances from cytoplasm to nucleus(e.g. proteins)

Front 193

Proteins imported(description)

Back 193

enzymes or proteins that form the subunits of ribosomes

Front 194

Nucleolus

Back 194

dark, spherical structure in the nucleoplasm
site of/involved in assembly of the ribosomal subunits(small and large)
involved in synthesis or ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
present in cells actively producing protein

Front 195

rRNA+Proteins imported

Back 195

form the subunit of the ribosome

Front 196

Nucleoplasm

Back 196

space within the nucleus

Front 197

Small and large ribosomal subunits

Back 197

exported from nucleus into the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores
fuse in cytoplasm to form the functional ribosome

Front 198

Chromatin

Back 198

appears as thread-like beaded structures meandering through the nucleoplasm
composed of structural units called nucleosomes

Front 199

Nucleosome

Back 199

consists of 8 histone proteins with a piece of the thread like-DNA wrapped around them

Front 200

DNA

Back 200

type of nucleic acids

Front 201

Nucleic acid

Back 201

fourth type of organic compound in the body
two types based on pentose sugar

Front 202

Two types

Back 202

DNA
RNA

Front 203

DNA

Back 203

deoxyribonucleic acid
contains the pentose sugar deoxyribose
nitrogen- containing A, T, C, G
In human cells, double helical structure
confined to nucleus

Front 204

RNA

Back 204

contains ribose sugar
A,U, C, G
always single stranded
exists both in the nucleus and the cytoplasm

Front 205

Chromatin(2 forms in human cell)

Back 205

Euchromatin (Active)
Heterochromatin (Inactive)

Front 206

Cell life cycle

Back 206

series of events involving growth of the cell and subsquent division of the cell
consists of two "sequential" phases

Front 207

Two sequential phases

Back 207

First phase: Interphase
Second phase: Cell chromosome division

Front 208

Interphase

Back 208

first phase
G1, S, G2
3 sequence subphases

Front 209

G1 phase

Back 209

protein synthesis occurs to cause cell growth
due to increase in the size of the cell is called hypertrophy
During protein synthesis the chromatin will be in the active form euchromatin
Centriole replication begins

Front 210

S subphase

Back 210

protein synthesis resulting in growth of the cell occurs
DNA replicates itself to form two identical DNA molecules

Front 211

DNA replication

Back 211

DNA uncoils and the 2 polynucleotides chains are separated
each polynucleotide chain acts as a template for the synthesis of a new polynucleotide chain.

Front 212

Semi-conservative replication

Back 212

the two DNA molecules synthesized via DNA replication each contain an old strand and a newly synthesized strand

Front 213

Cell cycle(G2 phase)

Back 213

protein synthesis continues
functional proteins required for the initiation/maintenance of mitosis are produced
Replication of centrioles completed

Front 214

Functional proteins required for cell division

Back 214

maturation promoting factor
cyclin
cyclin-dependent kinase(CDK)

Front 215

Cell division(two types)

Back 215

Cytokinesis
Mitosis

Front 216

Cytokinesis

Back 216

division of the cytoplasm around each nucleus
formation of two daughter cells

Front 217

Mitosis

Back 217

nuclear division
if not followed by cytokinesis results in a multinucleated cell

Front 218

Multinucleate cell

Back 218

can be formed by diffusion of several cells to form one large cell with several nuclei

Front 219

Cell growth(during interphase)

Back 219

hypertrophy> increase in cell size

Front 220

After mitosis/cytokinesis

Back 220

cell number increases
hyperplasia> increase in cell number

Front 221

Prevention of hyperplasia

Back 221

prevent DNA replication
Whole proteins

Front 222

Neoplasm

Back 222

excessive proliferation of cells(hyperplasia)
2 main types
benign vs. malignant

Front 223

Benign

Back 223

located tumors
do not undergo metastasis

Front 224

Malignant

Back 224

Metastasis
cancer cells get into bloodstream and lymph
cancer cells carried to other tissues/organs
cancer cells seed and grow in these tissues/organs

Front 225

Effective cancer chemotherapeutic drugs

Back 225

based on/off the cell cycle
3 methods

Front 226

First method

Back 226

inhibit/prevent DNA replication in the S phase of interphase
only cells with replicated DNA are capable of mitosis

Front 227

Second method

Back 227

inhibition of the production of the functional protein in G2 phase
inhibition of the function in the Go proteins
>functional proteins produced in the G2 phase for the inhibition/maintenance of cell division

Front 228

Third method

Back 228

disruption of the spindle fibers(mitotic spindles)
>anaphase is aborted

Front 229

Cell cycle

Back 229

Interphase
Cell division

Front 230

Interphase

Back 230

protein synthesis
regulated by DNA in the nucleus of the cell

Front 231

Protein synthesis

Back 231

chromatin is in the euchromatin(active, extended form)

Front 232

Free-messenger RNA(synthesis)

Back 232

Made from transcription of gene(area or part of the DNA)

Front 233

Pre-mRNA

Back 233

Has introns and extrons
edited and spliced
>mRNA

Front 234

Introns

Back 234

spliced out/removed
base sequences that are non-sensical(do not code for amino acids)

Front 235

mRNA

Back 235

made of exons

Front 236

Exons

Back 236

amino-acid coding sequence

Front 237

Triplet

Back 237

3 base sequence on DNA

Front 238

Codon

Back 238

3 base sequence in mRNA

Front 239

Anti-codon

Back 239

3 base sequence in tRNA

Front 240

tRNA

Back 240

amino acid, anti-codon
since there are 20 amino acids>there are 20 types of tRNA
several tRNAs might be attached to the same amino acid due to redundancy in genetic code

Front 241

Significance of redundancy in genetic code

Back 241

codons in messenger RNA that specify the anti-codons on tRNA
> specify the amino acids in the proteins
take care of mistakes that may occur during transcription of the DNA into pre-mRNA
accomodate mistakes during the editing/splicing of pre-mRNA

Front 242

Triplets

Back 242

3 base sequence in DNA transcribed into codons
3 base sequence in mRNA
by the anti-codon with attached amino-acid

Front 243

Anti-codons

Back 243

3 base sequence on the tRNA complementary to the codons
codons are complementary to the triplets
>hence, anti-codon will the same as triplet(T becomes U)

Front 244

4 primary types of tissue

Back 244

Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
Connective tissue

Front 245

Epithelial tissue(2 types)

Back 245

Glandular epithelium
Membranous epithelium

Front 246

Membranous epithelium

Back 246

simple vs. stratified
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
pseudostratified epithelium(simple)
transitional epithelium(stratified)

Front 247

SImple squamous epithelium

Back 247

in the kidney glomeruli(part of filtration membrane)
in the lungs(part of respiratory membrane)
lining structures(heart, blood vessel, lymphatic vessels) in circulatory system(endothelium)
forms part of the serous membrane(mesothelium); lining of ventral body cavity
allows passage of materials via diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important
secretes lubricating substances in serosae

Front 248

Kidney tubules

Back 248

tube-like structures that process urine

Front 249

Circulatory system

Back 249

cardiovascular system
lymphatic system

Front 250

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Back 250

form part of kidney tubules, have microvili on their apical surface
outer covering of ovum called germinal epithelium
secretion, reabsorption and protection

Front 251

Simple columnar epithelium

Back 251

ciliated vs. non-ciliated

Front 252

Ciliated simple columnar epithelium

Back 252

bronchi, endowed with goblets cell which secrete mucus
lines fallopian(uterine) tubes

Front 253

Bronchi

Back 253

tube-like structures leading into the lung

Front 254

Cilia((bronchi)

Back 254

beat to create a unidirectional current that moves the mucus laden with bacteria and debris away from the lungs toward the pharynx

Front 255

CIlia(fallopian tubes)

Back 255

beat to create a unidirectional current that moves the ova(eggs) toward the uterine wall

Front 256

Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium(1st location)

Back 256

in digestive tract(GI tract), epithelial cells have microvili to increase surface for absorption of nutrients
involved in secretion

Front 257

Non-cilitated simple columnar epithelium(2nd location)

Back 257

lining ducts involved in secretion

Front 258

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Back 258

simple epithelium with false appearance of stratification
ciliated vs. non-ciliated

Front 259

Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium

Back 259

in conjunction with goblet cells> referred to as "respiratory epithelium"
because it lines most of the structures in the respiratory system such as the trachea
Cilia beat to create an unidirectional current that moves mucus
away from the lungs and into the pharynx(throat)

Front 260

Respiratory epithelium

Back 260

also endowed with goblet cells
Mucus secretion

Front 261

Cilia(pseudostratified epithelium)

Back 261

beat to create a unidirectional current that moves mucus laden with pathogens and debris away from the lungs and into the pharynx

Front 262

Non-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Back 262

line the reproductive male ducts(epiddymides, vasa deferentia, ejaculatory duct, urethra)
give protectin to the internal surface of the ducts

Front 263

Male ducts

Back 263

carry sperm out of testes

Front 264

Stratified epithelial tissue

Back 264

at least two layers of epithelial cells
round for the epithelial cell type in the apical(face) surface

Front 265

Stratified squamous epithelium

Back 265

non-keratinized vs. keratinized

Front 266

Keratinized squamous epithelium

Back 266

in epidermis of skin

Front 267

Keratinized epithelial cells

Back 267

dead cells impregnated with the tough fibrous proteins called keratin to make the epidermis abrasive resistant
coated with glycolipids(released from laminated granules in stratum granulosum)
>make epidermis waterproof

Front 268

Epidermis

Back 268

best suited as for its function as an abrasive-resistant water-proof outer protective coat

Front 269

Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium tissue

Back 269

epithelial cells are not keratinized/waterproof
form part of the mucous membrane that lines structures in the tracts of body
>any body organ with at least one opening to the exterior
lines entry and exit points of the tracts
Protect but not abrasive resistant as the keratinized form

Front 270

Stratified cuboidal+stratified columnar epithelium

Back 270

rare in human body
line ducts from exocrine glands
involved in secretion of products from glands
provides some protection to the inner surface of the ducts

Front 271

Exocrine glands

Back 271

secrete products called secretions

Front 272

Transitional epithelium

Back 272

in the urine-transporting ureter
when ureter and bladder are empty> 6 layers of cell with apical cell appearing rounded/cuboidal
As urine enters these structures, the transitional eputhelium undergoes a transition from 6 to 3 layers
>rounded cells become flat squamous like cells
> capacity of structures is increased

Front 273

Ureters

Back 273

issue of the kidneys
transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder where urine is stored

Front 274

Glandular epithelia

Back 274

glands composed of epithelial cells ad they secrete products called secretions.

Front 275

Glandular epithelial

Back 275

2 types of glands
endocrine vs. exocrine

Front 276

Endocrine glands

Back 276

ductless glands
release hormones into the extracellular fluid(ECF= interstitial+blood plasma)

Front 277

Exocrine glands

Back 277

2 types
unicellular vs multicellular

Front 278

Unicellular exocrine glands

Back 278

no ducts and they release their products into cavities inside the body

Front 279

Multicellular exocrine glands

Back 279

equipped with ducts
2 classifications
structural vs. functional

Front 280

Multicellular exocrine glands II

Back 280

simple vs. compound
tubular vs. alveolar
tubuloalveolar
5 types

Front 281

5 types (recognizing them)

Back 281

simple=unbranched ducts; compound= branched ducts
tubular=tube-like secretory proteins; alveolar=flask-like secretory proteins
e.g tubuloaveolar multicellular exocrine glands:branched ducts
tube-like and flask-like secretory proteins

Front 282

Connective tissue

Back 282

2nd primary tissue type in human body

Front 283

Mesenchyme

Back 283

embryonic tissue from which all types of connective tissue are derived indirectly
gives rise to 4 types of cell

Front 284

4 types of cell

Back 284

fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, hematopoeitic stem cells

Front 285

Fibroblasts

Back 285

secrete the connective tissue class called connective tissue proper

Front 286

Fibrocytes

Back 286

matured fibroblasts
do not secrete connective tissue proper
based on physiological needs can revert into fibroblasts

Front 287

Chondroblasts

Back 287

secrete the connective tissue class called cartilage
matured chondroblasts=chondrocytes

Front 288

Osteoblasts

Back 288

secrete the CT class called osseous or bone tissue
Mature osteoblasts=osteocytes

Front 289

Hematopoeitic stem cells

Back 289

located inside red bone marrow
secrete CT class blood

Front 290

CT class blood

Back 290

2 parts
living vs. non-living portion

Front 291

living portion

Back 291

cells that secrete that CT class
cells and fibers are dispersed inside the ground substance

Front 292

non-living portion

Back 292

extracellular matrix

Front 293

Extracellular matrix

Back 293

2 parts
ground substance
fibers

Front 294

Ground substance

Back 294

interstitial fluid
cell adhesion molecules such as lamina(adhere the cells and the fibers to the ground substances)
proteoglycans

Front 295

Proteoglycans

Back 295

consist of a protein core with carbohydrate-like substances called glycosaminoglycans(GAGs)

Front 296

Glycosaminoglycans(GAGs)

Back 296

their level determines the consistency of the ground substance;
fluid gel-like= connective tissue proper
semi-solid= cartilage
solid=bone tissue

Front 297

Finer types in connective tissue

Back 297

collagen fibers> white fibers
tough fibers> provide tensile strength to connective tissue
elastic fibers> yellow fibers

Front 298

Elastic fibers(yellow fibers)

Back 298

stretch-recoil properties of the connective tissue
stretches to accomodate the stress/pressure
when pressure removed, elastic connective tissue maintains its original size/length when it recoils

Front 299

4 classes of connective tissue

Back 299

CT proper
cartilage
bone tissue
blood

Front 300

CT proper

Back 300

loose CT
dense CT

Front 301

Loose CT

Back 301

areolar
adipose
reticular

Front 302

Dense CT

Back 302

dense regular
dense irregular
elastic

Front 303

CT proper loose areolar CT

Back 303

widely distributed in body
provides support
referred to as the packaging material of the body
houses macrophages that are involved in non-specific immune response

Front 304

Lamina propria

Back 304

Aerolar CT underlying the mucous membrane

Front 305

CT proper loose adipose CT

Back 305

surround structures in the ventral body cavity
provide protection against trauma
hold structures in right anatomical position
store triglycerides that provide the most concentrated form of stored energy

Front 306

CT proper loose reticular CT

Back 306

in lymphoid tissues
form network structure called stroma in lymphoid organs

Front 307

Dense connective tissue

Back 307

high level of fibers especially collagen
hence, also known as fibrous connective tissue

Front 308

Dense regular CT

Back 308

parallel rows of collagen cell facing in the same direction
collagen fibers are regularly arranged
found in tendons
connect skeletal muscles to bones
poorly vascularized

Front 309

Dense irregular CT

Back 309

collagen fibers arranged in irregular fashion
found in epithelial tissue(epidermis)
provides nutrients/O2 to capsules

Front 310

Dense elastic CT

Back 310

collagen fibers+elastic fibers
stretch recoil properties
walls of aorta

Front 311

2nd class of connective tissue(CT)
cartilage

Back 311

Cartilage

Front 312

3 types cartilage

Back 312

hyaline
fibrocartilage
elastic

Front 313

Lacunae

Back 313

nutrients/O2 diffusion from the perichondrium to the chondrocytes inside shallow concavities

Front 314

Hyaline cartilage

Back 314

forms embryonic skeleton
ossification of embryonic skeleton
persists as artificial cartilage, epiphyseal plate and coastal cartilage

Front 315

artificial cartilage

Back 315

caps the ends of epiphysis in the long bone

Front 316

epiphyseal plates

Back 316

located at the junction of the epiphyses and diaphysis
allow for longitudinal bone growth

Front 317

coastal cartilage

Back 317

connect ribs anteriorly to the sternum

Front 318

Fibrocartilage

Back 318

blend between dense regular CT and hyaline cartilage
regularly arranged fibers alternating with rows of lacunae containing chondrocytes

Front 319

3rd class of connective tissue(osseous)

Back 319

osseous tissue
cell type secretion osseous tissue>osteoblasts

Front 320

Mature osteoblasts

Back 320

osteocytes residing in the lacunae in the solid matrix

Front 321

Ground substance of osseous tissue

Back 321

solid due to
increase in cialis
increase in bundle of collagen fiber
incorporation of calcium phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatites

Front 322

Bone tissue

Back 322

living portion
non-living portion

Front 323

Living portion

Back 323

osteoblasts

Front 324

Non-living portion

Back 324

external cellular matrix

Front 325

External cellular matrix

Back 325

organic matrix(osteoid)
inorganic matrix(hydroxyapatites)

Front 326

4th class of CT

Back 326

blood

Front 327

Blood

Back 327

living portion
non-living portion

Front 328

Living portion

Back 328

hematopoeitic stem cells

Front 329

Non-living portion

Back 329

extracellular matrix

Front 330

Extracellular matrix

Back 330

fluid matrix called blood plasma
soluble proteins called fibrinogen

Front 331

Fibrinogen

Back 331

when blood clots, forms strands called fibrin strands(visible)

Front 332

3rd type of primary tissue

Back 332

nervous tissue
composed of two cell types
neurons(nerve cells)
supporting cells(neuroglia)

Front 333

Neuron(structure)

Back 333

cell body also known as the soma=perikargon
contains nucleus + all the cytoplasmic organelles
prominent nucleolus>specialized rough ER called NISSLE body
active in protein synthesis

Front 334

Cell body

Back 334

referred to as the biosynthetic region of a neuron

Front 335

Nucleus

Back 335

cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system

Front 336

Ganglion

Back 336

cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

Front 337

Dendrite

Back 337

2nd region of neuron
each neuron may have at least 1 dendrite extended from the cell body
appear tapered and received electrical signals coming to neurons
>referred to as receptive region of neuron

Front 338

Axon

Back 338

3rd region of neuron
only one axon per neuron
uniform diameter
lack cytoplasmic organelles including rough ER
may have side branching called axon collateral

Front 339

Telodendria

Back 339

end branches formed by axon branches
end in knob like structures called axon terminals(or boutons, synaptic knobs)

Front 340

Axon terminals

Back 340

contain vesicles which contain neurotransmitters which are released when axon generates and transmits action potentials
>Hence axon terminal is a secretory neuron

Front 341

Neurotransmitters

Back 341

chemical signals used by neurons to communicate

Front 342

Action potentials

Back 342

electrical signals generated by the axon
a traveling action potential is referred to as a nerve impulse
>hence axon is the conducting region of a neuron

Front 343

Supporting cell(neuroglia)

Back 343

6 types of supporting cells
4 types in the CNS
2 types in the PNS

Front 344

4th type of primary tissue(muscle tissue)

Back 344

Muscle tissue

Front 345

Muscle tissue(3 types)

Back 345

skeletal muscle tissue
cardiac muscle tissue
smooth muscle tissue

Front 346

Skeletal muscle tissue

Back 346

striations
multinucleate under voluntary control

Front 347

Cardiac muscle tissue

Back 347

striations
uninucleate under involuntary control
intercalated disks

Front 348

Smooth muscle tissue

Back 348

no striations
uninucleate
involuntary control

Front 349

Organ

Back 349

next level of structural complexity in the human body
composed of at least two primary tissues/ 4 types of membrane

Front 350

Organ system

Back 350

next level of structural complexity
consists of at least two types of organs that perform in a complimentary fashion

Front 351

Integumentary system

Back 351

skin
accessory structures

Front 352

Skin

Back 352

epidermis
dermis

Front 353

Epidermis

Back 353

keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue
thickness of the skin differs based on the number of strata in epidermis
thin skin vs. thick skin

Front 354

Thin skin

Back 354

the rest of the skin apart from soles and palms
4 strata

Front 355

Thick skin

Back 355

soles and palms
5 strata

Front 356

Strata in epidermis(down to up)

Back 356

stratum basale
stratum spinosum
stratum granulosum
stratum lucidum
stratum corneum

Front 357

Stratum basale

Back 357

deepest stratum abutting the basement membrane
composed of a single layer of cuboidal cells called keratinocytes
undergo mitosis to provide keratinocytes to superficial strata in the epidermis
hence also known as the stratum germinative
also contains melanocytes and Merkel cells

Front 358

Melanocytes

Back 358

contain vesicles called melanosomes>vesicles containing melanin

Front 359

Melanin

Back 359

released onto the superficial surface of the keratinocytes in the stratum basale
act as a chemical shield to protect the rapidly dividing keratinocytes from harmful effect of UV light, radiation and sunlight

Front 360

Merkel cells

Back 360

associate with nerve endings(inside the papillary layer of the dermis) to form touch receptors called Merkel discs

Front 361

Merkel disks

Back 361

act as receptors for light touch

Front 362

Stratum spinosum

Back 362

immediately superior to stratum basale
contains Langerhans' cells, intermediate filaments called tonofilaments
contains keratinocytes which are connected by desmosomes
Keratinocytes(do not separate) appear spiky when epidermis is subjected to histological chemicals(harsh conditions)

Front 363

Desmosomes

Back 363

anchoring junctions

Front 364

Langerhans' cells aka epidermal dendritic cells

Back 364

specialized macrophages
engulf and destroy pathogens that enter when epidermis is breached.

Front 365

Skin

Back 365

protective function

Front 366

Melanin

Back 366

chemical protection

Front 367

Langerhans' cells(in spinosum)

Back 367

biological/ immunological protection

Front 368

Stratum spinosum

Back 368

exhibits high tensile strength
desmosomes and tonofilaments

Front 369

Stratum granulosum

Back 369

immediately superficial to the stratum spinosum
keratinocytes etrude all cytoplasmic organelles and fill the cytoplasm with two types of granules
lamellated vs. keratohyaline granules

Front 370

Lamellated granules

Back 370

contain glycolipids

Front 371

Keratohyaline granules

Back 371

contain keratin

Front 372

Glycolipids and keratin

Back 372

released onto superficial layers

Front 373

Statum lucidum(thick skin only)

Back 373

stratum immediately above stratum granulosum
keratinocytes in this stratum are filled with glycolipids
keratin and these cells appear lucid
hence the name stratum lucidum

Front 374

Stratum corneum

Back 374

most superficial layer of skin
20-30 layers of dead cell filled with keratin and coated with glycolipids
tough, abrasive-resistant coat(=keratin)
water-proof(=glycolipids)
when intact first line of defense against pathogens
keratinocyes in this layer are cornified(impregnated with keratin) and coated with glycolipids

Front 375

Dermis(2 subdivisions)

Back 375

superficial papillary layer
deeper reticular layer

Front 376

Superficial papillary layer

Back 376

composed of dense irregular
abut the reticular lamina of the basement membrane beneath epidermis
surface has dermal papillae
houses blood vessels(because areolar CT highly vascularized)
has touch receptors called meissner's corpscules

Front 377

Dermal papillae

Back 377

houses nerve endings(couple with Merkel cells to form Merkel discs at the epidermal-dermal junction)

Front 378

Deeper reticular layer

Back 378

composed of aerolar CT

Front 379

SKin

Back 379

low pH at the surface of the cell

Front 380

Acidic mantle of sweat

Back 380

antibodies=neutralize/immobilize microorganisms
demidin= retards microbial growth
acid environment

Front 381

Eccrine sweat glands

Back 381

secrete sweat

Front 382

Apocrine sweat glands

Back 382

present at birth but become active after puberty
secrete thick, viscous fluid containg proteins and fats

Front 383

Proteins and fats

Back 383

catabolized by pathogens on the skin surface to give off body odor
hence apocrine sweat glands referred to as sudoriferous glands

Front 384

Merocrine mode of secretion

Back 384

used by both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands

Front 385

Apocrine sweat glands

Back 385

misnomer because the apocrine sweat glands use the merocrine mode of excretion

Front 386

Merocrine mode of secretion

Back 386

secretory cell undergoes exocytosis to release products

Front 387

Holocrine mode of secretion

Back 387

secretory cell ruptures to release accumulated products

Front 388

Apocrine mode of secretion

Back 388

apex of the secretory cell pinches off to release accumulated products

Front 389

Function of hairs(of 3 types of hair)

Back 389

eyelashes-protect the eyes
hair on scalp- protect the scalp and the underlying blood vessels
vibrissae-nasal hairs, filter coarse particles in inhaled air

Front 390

Function of hair as an insulator

Back 390

due to action of the arrector pili muscle to hair follicle
cold vs. hot weather

Front 391

Cold weather

Back 391

arrector pili contracts
pull hair from oblique to upright position
layer of air trapped by hair strands
hair strand upright-poor conductor of heat and hence act as an insulator

Front 392

Hot weather

Back 392

increase in sweat production
because water has high heat capacity for evaporation
heat is provided by the body to evaporate sweat from the surface of the skin
hence cooling the body
maintain a stable/core body temperature

Front 393

Thermoregulation

Back 393

Hot and Cold weather control systems

Front 394

Skeletal system

Back 394

consists of bones(organs) and cartilage

Front 395

Bones(4 classes)

Back 395

4 classes based on shape and structure
structure defines function
long, short, irregular and flat bones FLISH

Front 396

Short bone

Back 396

specialized type of short bone embedded in tendon are referred to as sesamoid bones(=patellae=knee caps)

Front 397

Irregular bones

Back 397

any bone that doesn't fit into any of the above 3 classes

Front 398

2 types of bone tissue(long bone)

Back 398

spongy vs. compact bone

Front 399

Spongy bone

Back 399

composed of flattened needle like structures called trabeculae(as the structural units of spongy bone tissue)
has large opening spaces filled with blood vessels and red bone marrow

Front 400

COmpact bone

Back 400

composed of structural units called osteons

Front 401

Osteons

Back 401

arrange in lamellae
each is composed of concentric tubes called lamellae.
hence compact bone is also known as lamellae(dense) bone

Front 402

Arrangement of collagen

Back 402

arrangement of collagen is opposite in adjacent lamellae to prevent twisting of bone

Front 403

Long bone(structure)

Back 403

larger than it is wider
2 expanded ends called epiphyses
diaphysis(shaft) is between the epiphyses

Front 404

Diaphysis

Back 404

collar of compact bone enclosing a space called the medullar cavity

Front 405

medullar cavity

Back 405

contains red bone marrow in the long bones of children
contains yellow bone marrow in the long bones in adults

Front 406

Epiphyses

Back 406

contain spongy bone tissue in the inside covered by thin layers of compact bone tissue
ends are capped in thin layer of hyaline cartilage(articular cartilage)

Front 407

Spongy bone tissue(epiphyses)

Back 407

contains red bone marrow irrespective of age(adults or children)

Front 408

Long bone(2 types of connective tissue)

Back 408

associated with two types of connective tissue
periosteum vs. endosteum

Front 409

Periosteum

Back 409

exterior of diaphysis(double layered)
attached to external surface of compact bone of diaphysis by tough-cord like structures called Sharpey's fibers(perforating)
outer fibrous layer vs. inner osteogenic layer

Front 410

Outer fibrous later

Back 410

dense irregular CT

Front 411

Inner osteogenic layer

Back 411

2 types of cells
osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts

Front 412

Osteoblasts

Back 412

derived from mesenchyme secrete bone(osseous) tissue

Front 413

Osteoclasts

Back 413

large mutlinucleated cells that caus bone breakdown(resorption)

Front 414

Volkmann's canals

Back 414

horizontal canals used by blood vessels( from the fibrous layer of the periosteum) to enter into the compact bone
join the vertical blood vessel in the core of the osteon

Front 415

Core of the osteon

Back 415

referred to as the HArversian canal
small hair-like canals extend from blood vessel in the Harvesian canal to the lacunae(where osteocytes reside)

Front 416

Maintenance of bone tissue

Back 416

nutrients and O2 diffuse from blood in the canaliculi to the osteocytes in the lacunae
blood vessels that enter the compact bone extend into the spaces in the spongy bone

Front 417

Epiphyseal plates

Back 417

plates at the metaphysis(junction of the diaphysis and epiphyses)
plates of hyaline cartilage
present in the metaphysis in the long bone of children
plates allow for longitudinal bone growth
in adults, ossify(turned into bone tissue) leaving a line called the epiphyseal line

Front 418

Hormones

Back 418

influence longitudinal bone growth
mostly growth hormones
levels of growth hormones in children are higher than in adults

Front 419

Architecture of 3 other tyes of bone

Back 419

spongy bone tissue with trabecullae covered by endosteum sandwiched between thins plates of periosteum covered compact bone

Front 420

Appositional bone growth

Back 420

second type of post natal bone growth
occurs in all bones(as opposed to longitudinal bone growth which occurs only in long bone)

Front 421

Bone formation outpaces bone resorption

Back 421

osteoblasts secrete new bone tissue unto the external surface of the bone
osteoclasts in endosteum(lines inner surface of bones) cause a slight resorption of the bone in the internal surface of the bone
Overall increase in diameter

Front 422

Bone remodeling

Back 422

occurs throughout life
indicates bones are dynamic organs in the body
bone formation and resorption occur at a constant rate

Front 423

Bone remodeling(functions)

Back 423

maintain calcium homeostasis
levels of ionic calcium(Ca2+) strictly maintained between 9mg-11mg/100 cc of blood

Front 424

Ionic calcium levels

Back 424

directly/indirectly affect cell physiological processes occuring in the body

Front 425

Bone remodeling(control)

Back 425

hormonal control
mechanical control

Front 426

Hormonal control

Back 426

2 hormones important in calcium homeostasis
parathyroid hormone
Calcitonin

Front 427

Hypoalcemia

Back 427

stimulus for PTH release
ionic levels below 9mg/100 cc of blood

Front 428

PTH(actions)

Back 428

stimulate osteoclasts indirectly
cause bone resorption
stimulates calcium reabsorption from tubular fluid in kidneys
stimulate synthesis of hormone called 1.25(OH2)VitD

Front 429

1.25(OH2)Vit D

Back 429

only hormone to directly stimulate calcium from small intestine

Front 430

Bone(calcium storage)

Back 430

bone stores about 1 kg of calcium in the form of hydroxyapatites

Front 431

Calcitonin

Back 431

stimular for calcitonin is hyperalcemia
blood calcium level above 11mg/100 cc of blood

Front 432

Calcitonin(actions)

Back 432

stimulates osteoblasts to secrete new bone tissue
mineralized incorportation of hydroxyapatites in the newly synthesized bone tissue
calcium moved from the blood to the bone tissue
stimulates calcium excretion in urine>decrease in blood calcium levels

Front 433

Joints

Back 433

3 structural classes
fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, synovial joints

Front 434

Fibrous joints

Back 434

bones are united by fibrous connective tissue
dense regular CT
3 subtypes of fibrous joints
sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses

Front 435

Sutures

Back 435

only present in skull
in children amphiarthrotic joints(allow for expansion of brain)
in adults synarthrotic joints(form immovable vault to protect developed brain)

Front 436

Syndesmoses

Back 436

2 types
cord of dense connective tissue(regular CT) called ligaments
sheet-like dense regular CT called inter-osseous membrane
considered amphiarthrotic joints

Front 437

Gomphoses

Back 437

short periodontal ligaments connect the root of teeth to alveolar sockets in mandible and two maxillae
considered synarthrotic joints

Front 438

Cartilaginous joints

Back 438

joints cavity absent
bones united by cartilage
2 types
synchondroses vs. symphyses

Front 439

Synchondroses

Back 439

hyaline cartilage unites the bones
generally considered synarthrotic joints
ex: epiphyseal plates

Front 440

Symphyses

Back 440

fibrocartilage unites the bones
amphiarthrotic joints
ex:intervertebral discs

Front 441

Synovial joints

Back 441

articular cartilage
joint cavity
articular capsule
ligaments that reinforce synovial joints

Front 442

Articular cartilage

Back 442

caps the ends of epiphyses

Front 443

Joint cavity

Back 443

space that contains synovial fluid which acts a lubricant to reduce friction
only in synovial joints

Front 444

Articular capsule

Back 444

double-layered
outer fibrous capsule-dense irregular CT
inner synovial membrane

Front 445

Ligaments that reinforce synovial joints

Back 445

capsular/intrisic
extracapsular
intracapsular

Front 446

capsular/intrisic

Back 446

-located inside fibrous capsule(e.g. medial collateral ligaments)

Front 447

Extracapsular ligaments

Back 447

located external to the articular capsule(ex:tibial collateral ligaments)

Front 448

Intracapsular ligaments

Back 448

located deep to articular cartilage
ex: anterior cruciate ligament(ACL)
blow to the front of extended knee tears ACL

Front 449

Synovial joints(active joints)

Back 449

joints that are often used
equipped with unique features

Front 450

Active joints(features)

Back 450

menisci, bursae-reduce friction
tendon sheaths-improve fit to minimize wear and tear at the joint as one ages
all are diarthrotic joints

Front 451

Shape of surface of the bone

Back 451

dictates the type of movement allowed
6 types
plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle joints
ball-and-socket joint

Front 452

Plane joint

Back 452

articulating surfaces are flat, movement allowed, known as gliding

Front 453

Hinge joint

Back 453

one articular surface is cylindrical and the other is a through;
movement/extension, which increases the angle of a joint and flexion(decreases the angle of a joint)

Front 454

Pivot joint

Back 454

one atircular surface is round and the other surface in a sleeve or ring
movements
rotation(atlantoaxial joint) allow for movement of the head from side to side to motion no

Front 455

Condyloid joint

Back 455

ellipsoidal
one articular surface is oval protusion and the other surface is an oval depression
movement-extension, flexion, abduction(movement of a limb away from trunk of body)
adduction(movement of a limb toward trunk of body)
circumduction(movement of a limb to describe a cone in space)
atlanto-occipital joint(yes motion)

Front 456

Saddle joint

Back 456

only in thumbs
one articular bone has both convex and concave surfaces and the other articular bone has both(in reverse)
movement:flexion, extension, abduction, adduction

Front 457

Ball and socket joint

Back 457

one articular surface is a spherical head and the other surface is a cuplike socket
ultimate diarthrotic joints-all movements are allowed