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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 ways to examine adolescence as a social invention |
1) changes in society's definition over time 2) comparing definitions across cultures 3) comparing different groups within US |
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Plato |
-influenced Piaget's cognitive stages -no reasoning until adolescence |
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Aristotle |
-self-determination and ability to choose occurred during adolescence -1st empirical scientist -influenced Erikson's tasks |
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Lifecycle Service (16-17th century) |
`-young people worked as apprentices, domestic service at age 12-15 |
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John Locke (18th cen) |
-"tabula rosa" - blank slate -everything is imprinted on adolescents from the environment |
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John Jacques Rousseau (18th cen) |
- "Noble Savage" -adolescents need tamed, constrained -encouraged education, curiosity |
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Industrial Revolution (19th cen) |
-saw first concern for child's well-being -18% of workers were under age of 16 |
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The Age of Adolescence |
-early 20th century -child labor laws, 1930s -mandatory schooling -separation from adult roles |
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Biggest change in Human Race in 20th century |
-increased lifespan |
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G. Stanley Hall |
-"Father of Adolescence" -influenced by Darwin, scientific study advocate |
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Recapitulation Theory of Adolescence |
-human development mirrors evolution 1) infants - primitive man, instinct 2) adolescents - savages 3) adults - civilized -outdated, but started things up |
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Storm and Stress Perspective |
-adolescence is a period of inevitable conflict with 1) parental disagreement, 2) mood disruptions and 3) risky behavior -biological in origin |
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1) Conflict with parents (Frequency, Intensity, Topics, Relationship) |
Frequency: highest in early adolescence, age 11-12. Report 2 conflicts every 3 days, 20 a month. Why can't you get along with siblings? Intensity: greatest around age 15 Topics: mundane; dating, curfew, appearance How it affects relationship: parents see this as hard time, but not a breach in their relationship |
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2) Mood Disruptions |
-greater disruptions and changes -more intense highs and lows |
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3) Risky Behaviors |
-behavior that causes danger to self or others -more prominent in boys -substance use peaks around 20 -highest rate of auto accidents -2/3 STDS contracted by those under 26 |
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Myth of Storm and Stress |
-we believe these things about other people, but not ourselves or our children |
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3 Explanations for changes in Storm and Stress |
1) Biological Changes 2) Search for Independence and Autonomy 3) Transitions and Role Changes |
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Margaret Mead |
-studied adolescents in Samoa -do NOT have Storm or Stress -nature is sociocultural, NOT biological |
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Sociocultural View of Adolescence |
-Mead -social transitions: how society treats and views adolescents -some have clear line of crossing over to adolescence; transition |
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Types of Social Transitions |
1) Interpersonal -family, friends, dating 2) Political -voting, draft 3) Economical -employment, taxes 4) Legal -driver's license, crime age |
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Process of Redefinition |
-process seen across some cultures -redefining a child into an adolescent |
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Redefining Processes: Across Cultures |
-extrusions - separation from parents -accentuation of sex differences -passing of historical, cultural, practical info |
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Redefining Processes: Diverse in Cultures |
Clarity -when one can recognize adolescent vs. adult -how explicitly you can tell when event occurs -Western Societies less clear Continuity -smooth or abrupt change, is there training? -continuous vs. discontinuous; do role build on each other as time progresses? |
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Is Adolescence a social invention? |
YES -but there are fundamental changes they experience -changes vary widely with context |
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Organismic Theories (Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg) |
-development is continuous -future development relies on previous |
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Freud's Personality Structure |
Personality Structure -Id: instincts, no conscious awareness -Ego: demands of reality; executive branch -Superego: conscience - moral branch |
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Freud's Psychosexual Stages |
1) Oral - birth to 18 months. Pleasure around mouth 2) Anal - 18 months to 3 years. Eliminative functions 3) Phallic - 3 to 6 years. Around sex organs 4) Latency - 6 to puberty. Repress sexual, develop social and intellect 5) Genital - puberty onward. Sexual awakening |
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Erikson's Developmental Tasks |
1) Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1 year) 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years) 3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years) 4) Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to puberty) 5) Identity vs. Identity Confusion (10 to 20) 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s-30s) 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s-50s) 8) Integrity vs. Despair (60's) |
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Contributions of Freud and Erikson |
-early experiences play role -family relationships are central -change can happen in adulthood |
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Criticisms of Freud and Erikson |
-hard to test -data is retrospective -unconscious mind and sex are too emphasized |
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Skinner's Behaviorism |
-scientific study of observable behavior and environmental determinants -Reinforcement: do behavior again -Punishment: don't do it again |
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Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) |
-emphasize behavior, cognition, and environment in development -Bobo doll, social learning, watch others |
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Contributions of Behavior and Cognitive Theory |
-emphasis on research and methods -focus on environmental determinants -observation -personal factors |
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Criticisms of Behavior and Cognitive Theory |
-too little on development -too little on spontaneity & creativity |
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Brofenbrenner's Bioegological Theory |
-studies normal things in normal people at normal times -levels of context |
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Brofenbrenner's Levels of Context |
Individual- age, sex, race 1) Microsystem: family, school, community 2) Mesosystem: two micros interacting 3) Exosystem: city gov, media 4) Macrosystem: culture 5) Chronosystem: historic time and age |
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Cohort Effect |
-differences between people from different cohorts |
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Brofenbrenner's Key Concepts |
1) Roles 2) Relationships 3) Activities 4) Ecological Transitions 5) Perceptions 6) Agency |
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Puberty derived from... |
-Latin "to grow hair" |
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What ages encompass puberty? |
-any changes from 7-early 20s that lead to reproductive capacity |
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Endocrine system |
-regulates the distribution of hormones inside the body -HPG axis |
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The HPG Axis |
Hypothalamus -in midbrain; pleasure; thermostat for hormone levels Pituitary -"master" gland, produces hormones to stimulate other glands -anterior more significant area than posterior -adrenal gland interacts, less is known, mostly for boys Gonads -sex glands that control release; ovaries, testes |
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Endocrine Feedback Loop |
1) hypothalamus moves GnRH to pituitary 2) pituitary takes ACTH to adrenal and LH or FSH to gonads 3) gonads make estrogens and adrenal makes androgens 4) yield sex characteristics 5) hormones go back to hypothalamus |
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Set Point |
-sex hormones reach optimal level and hypothalamus releases GnRH to begin process |
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2 Stages of Puberty Hormone Changes |
1) Adrenarche: activates adrenal glands -occurs between 6-9, secrete androgens 2) Gonadarche -develop reproductive capacity after: -menarche - average age 12 -spermarche - average age 13 |
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GnRH |
Gonadotropins Releasing Hormone -released by hypothalamus to turn on pubertal system, pituitary releases into adrenal and gonads 1) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) -follicle in females, sperm in males 2) Lutenizing Hormone (LH) -estrogen and ovum development in women, testosterone in males |
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Androgens |
-present in both sexes, but male sex hormones -most commonly testosterone Causes: -low voice, broad shoulders, more hair, grow in chest, more strength -2.5x as much in men as women * |
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Estrogens |
-present in both sexes, but female sex hormones -most commonly estradiol Causes: -breast development, broadening of hips -8x as much in girls as boys * |
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Children have the same amount of sex hormones |
True |
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ACTH |
-adrenocorticotopic hormone: adrenal gland makes more androgens |
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Thyroid Gland |
-stimulated by hypothalamus to promote growth |
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Growth Spurts |
Boys: 4.1 inches, grade 7-8 Girls: 3.5 inches, grade 5-6 -we double in size as infants, then growth is linear, rapid in adolescence, then we shrink with compressing vertebrae |
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Asynchronous |
-outside grows first; feet, arm, legs, torso -extremities and then trunk -teens are gangly |
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Muscle and Fat Development |
-boys grow muscle faster, partly biological and social -girls have quick fat growth in puberty, need 17% to maintain menstrual cycle |
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Circulatory and Respiratory Development |
-heart grows 2x in adolescence -girls' hearts beat 5 beats faster -boys have more lung capacity, broader chest, more aerobic exercise |
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Primary Sex Characteristics |
-all about procreation -produce sperm -produce egg -develop sex organs |
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Secondary Sex Characteristics |
-anything not directly related to procreation -hair growth, rougher skin, sweat glands increase -women increase in breasts |
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Order of Sexual Characteristic Development |
Boys: 1) testes, scrotum, pubic hair 2) growth spurt 3) penis growth 4) deep voice, sweat 5) facial hair Girls: 1) Pubic hair, breast, growth spurt 2) growth in vagina, clit 3) Menarche - only 85% tell mom 4) Oil and sweat, underarm hair |
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What starts the pubertal system? |
Early entry -high SES, better health and nutrition, father absence for girls, stress and family conflict Late entry -low fat, high exercise, opposite of things above --both influenced by culture, country of origin |
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Leptin |
-made by fat cells and signals hypothalamus-higher leptin in girls; why they start earlier? -have more body fat |
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Genotype |
-genetic heritage, material, not necessarily expressed |
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Phenotype |
-how genes are expressed |
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Behavioral Genetics |
-see how heredity and environment interacts to show individual differences |
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Twin Study |
-comparing behavioral similarity of identical twins vs. fraternal twins |
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Adoption Study |
-behavior of children compared to adopted parents, siblings, and biological parents if possible |
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Passive Genotype-Environment Correlations |
-occurs because biological parents, genetically related to child, also shape their environment |
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Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlations |
-when an adolescent's genetically shaped characteristics elicit certain types of environments -coordinated kids pushed into athletics -Halo effect: better looking people perceived as good, nice |
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Active Genotype-Environment Correlations |
-Correlationsthat occur when children seek out environment they find compatible andstimulating -if you like music, you'll join a band |
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Scarr |
-suggests passive correlations most important as children; you don't pick environment -evocative and active important when older |
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Are genetic and environmental contributions additive? |
No: they are multiplicative -your genetic potential times your environmental factors equals your outcome |
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Pubertal Status, Timing, and Tempo |
Status: -Tanner Stage Theories; scale of physical development -young kids and moms rank themselves the same, later moms don't know as much Timing: focus on onset compared to others Tempo: rate of change, progression; not related to timing |
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MZ twins have similar timing AND tempo |
TRUE -treated more similarly by their environments; same activities, outfits |
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Early Maturing Boys |
Short term: -positive self-image, more popular, more delinquency, earlier sex Long term: -more confident, responsible, and conforming |
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Late Maturing Boys |
Short term: -less delinquency, less popular, negative self-image, worse grades, more explorative and curious Long term: -more insightful, creative, impulsive, substance abuse |
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Early Maturing Girls |
Short Term: -more popular, emotional problems, conflict with parents, negative body image, delinquency, earlier sex Long term: -better coping skills, negative attitude to school, higher depression, higher eating disorders |
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Late Maturing Girls |
Short term: -less emotional problems, teased more, less delinquent, similar to on-time girls Long term: -favorable body image, more likely to have lean build |
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Deviance Hypothesis |
-standing out from peers may relate to psychological stress -less info and support -more social comparison -early girls are very early, late boys are very late |
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State-Termination Hypothesis |
-less prepared for transition if early -emotional, unskilled, immature; less time to finish childhood tasks |
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Accentuation Hypothesis |
-periods of discontinuity accentuate differences between people |
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Cultural Values Hypothesis |
-early girls and late boys are at risk -society values thinness and muscle -average woman is really 5/4, 142 lbs. |
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Why and When Models |
1) Peer Socialization Hypothesis -early maturation = advanced peer group 2) Contextual Amplification Hypothesis -cumulative risks; early puberty + other stressors = issues -Moderator Hypothesis: conditions that shape puberty lead to adjustment |
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Integration of Peer Socialization and Contextual Amplification (Stattin & Skoog) |
importance of process and context -Stattin: at school, spending time with those your age and pubertal timing is fine; outside, it relates to choice of friends and delinquency -Skoog: Slovakia vs. Sweden (liberal views on adolescent sexuality) -early puberty predicted problem behavior for girls only in Sweden UNTIL Slovakia girls met boys |
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Sleep |
-active process in which brain areas show same or increased activity than when awake -restorative power |
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Adolescents and REM Sleep |
-less duration and depth of non-REM sleep -more adult-like patterns of REM |
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Shift in Sleep Timing |
-Adolescents go to bed around 10:30-11 compared to 9-9:30 -wake around 7 for school -sleep in more when given the chance -later onset of falling asleep; time we sleep is linear, continues to get later |
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Hormonal Changes in sleep |
-melatonin is released later |
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Longer Duration of Sleep |
-usually sleep 9 1/2-10 hours if they can -on average, sleep 7 hours on school nights, catch up on weekends |
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Biology and Environmental Mismatch in Sleep |
-teens need more sleep, but... -school starts earlier, school is more demanding, and they socialize more -socialize about an hour a day, study about an hour a day - |
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Increased Access to TV and Internet |
-95% adolescents have internet -83% have social media -78% have phones, 37% smart phones -7.5 hours a day in front of media, 10.5 if you include multitasking -Fuligini: time watching TV doesn't hurt sleep, but internet does -phone at bedside didn't hurt sleep |
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Cultural Differences in Sleep |
-US and Asian youth sleep less than European; wake up earlier for school |
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Consequences of Lack of Sleep |
-less self control, amygdala -depression, anxiety, fatigue, bad mood -exacerbates existing problems -less serotonin -more auto accidents -less cognitive functioning, academic performance -lack of motivation to start things -mimics ADHD |
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Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory |
Organization -how knowledge is stored -schema: mental framework designed to organize and interpret behavior Adaptation -how new info is synthesized or processed |
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Processes of Adaptation (ADA-ptation) |
Assimilation -fit new knowledge into existing Disequilibrium -realize current frameworks are limited Accommodation -new info leads to adjusting current schemas |
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Piaget's 4 Stages of Development |
1) Sensorimotor (0-2) 2) Preoperational (2-5) -represent world symbolically; tall glass has more, no perspective taking 3) Concrete Operational (6-10) -can plan series of moves, but only if can see it 4) Formal Operational (10-on) -think without experiencing, complex thought -due to BIOLOGICAL readiness and ENVIRONMENTAL demands |
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Changes in Adolescent Thinking |
1) Abstract Thought 2) Advanced Reasoning and Logic 3) Metacognition 4) Relativism |
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1) Abstract Thought |
-concepts that aren't directly experienced -social principles; politics, philosophy, morality, friendship |
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2) Advanced Reasoning and Logic |
-deductive and inductive reasoning -language principles: sarcasm, metaphor |
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3) Metacognition |
-thinking about thinking -introspection: thinking about one's emotions -intellectualization: thinking about one's thoughts -self-consciousness: thinking of how others see us |
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Adolescent Egocentrism |
-inability to separate their thinking about own thoughts from thinking about thoughts of others -everyone thinks alike, has same thoughts about me as I do |
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Imaginary Audience |
-belief that others are aware and attentive to your behavior -onset of self-consciousness |
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Personal Fable |
-belief that own experiences are unique -sense of invulnerability -Optimistic Bias: won't happen to me |
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4) Relativism |
-can question "truths" -beyond wrong and right -Heintz' moral dilemma |
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Postformal Thought |
-possible 5th stage to Piaget -greater awareness of complexity of life |
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Pragmatism |
-practical limitations to logical thinking |
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Dialectical Thought |
-problems often have no clear solutions, opposing sides may both have merit |
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Reflective Judgment |
-ability to evaluate accuracy and logic of others' judgment -critical thinking |
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory |
-how culture and social interaction guide development |
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Vygotsky: Knowledge is... |
1) Situated -distributed among people and environments 2) Collaborative -can be advanced through interactions |
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) |
-range of tasks to difficult for individual to master alone, but can be mastered with guidance |
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Lower level ZPD |
-problem solving achieved independently |
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Higher level ZPD |
-need assistance from teacher, instructor - agents of socialization |
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Scaffolding |
-level of support needed over course of a lesson -can change over time |
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Cognitive Apprenticeship/Guided Participation |
-expert stretches the novice's understanding and use of the culture's skills |
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Information Processing Model |
-mind is like a computer -serial execution to cognitive tasks |
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Attention |
-stimulus we can focus on Selective: tune out irrelevant Divided: multiple things at once |
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Input and Storage of Short Term Memory |
-passive and limited process -about 7 things can stay at a time, plus or minus 2 |
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Speed of Processing |
-how long it takes to evaluate a current set of information |
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Automaticity |
-degree of effort used to process info -teens have more than children, but based more on experience than age alone |
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Neuron |
-specialized nerve cell in brain |
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Axon |
-nerve fiber that conducts impulses away from cell |
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Myelin Sheath |
-like coating around electric cord; surrounds core of axon to facilitating transmission of nerve impulses |
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Dendrites |
-extension on nerve cell that takes impulses from nearby cells to cell body |
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Synapse |
-junction where impulse passes from axon to neuron by dendrites |
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Brain Size |
-about 95% at age 6 |
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Overproduction/Exuberance |
-increase in synaptic connections in the brain in early adolescence -occurs in frontal lobe- gray matter |
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Synaptic Pruning |
-late adolescence, systematic reduction of unused synapses |
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Myelination |
-increase in fat insulation around axon of neurons in late adolescence |
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Neurotransmitters |
-increase in production of dopamine and serotonin in late adolescence; pleasure and mood |
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Dr. Yurgelun-Todd Study of Emotion |
-teens identify adult faces differently; see anger where there is none -use more primitive brain structure, amygdala, to interpret emotions |
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Cerebellum |
-develops latest -coordination, balance -coordination of THOUGHT processes |
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Behavioral Decision Theory |
1) Identify Alternatives 2) Identify Consequences -adults long-term, adolescents short term 3) Desirability of Consequences -youth emphasis on reward, not risk 4) Likelihood of Consequences -adolescents bad at determining 5) Integration |
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Youth behavior often occurs in... |
-group settings -those who do antisocial things alone have issues; if they do it with friends, they grow out of it |
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Peer Influence |
Peer Pressure: direct and overt influence Peer Approval/Fear of rejection: more powerful, misjudge what percent of peers drink |
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Why should adolescence be a mitigating factor? |
1) Deficiencies in Decision-Making Capability 2) Heightened Vulnerability to Coercion 3) Unformed Character |
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US Supreme Court 2005 and 2012 |
-2005 NO death penalty for teens -compared adolescent brain to mentally impaired -2012 no life without parole |
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Steinberg |
-adolescents and adults are inherently different, should take into account in criminal cases |
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Social Cognition |
-how people think about people, social relationships, and institutions |
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Friendships: Children vs. Adolescents |
Children -what you DO together; concrete Adolescents -conceptualized terms; intimacy, trust |
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Emotion Processing |
-movement of facial expressions from frontal cortex to amygdala from childhood to adolescence |
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Social Perspective Taking |
-Children believe everyone thinks alike -Preadolescence is when you begin to develop this |
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Mutual Perspective Taking |
-Early adolescence -realize perspectives can influence each other |
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Social and Conventional Perspective Taking |
-Late adolescence -understand thought is complex, innocuous, influenced by social factors |
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Choudhury, Blakemore, Charman (pronouns) |
-in first person, ages performed similarly -in third person, younger people did poorly |
