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427 Cards in this Set
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What did wagenaar and groeneweg (1999) find when they compared testimonies by prisoners |
Between 1940s and 1980s, they had forgotten essential details E.g. imprisonment dates Instances of maltreatment Torturers' names and appearance Even seeing a murder |
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When asking car driver so recall events what did Crundall and Underwood (2000) show? |
After 2 weeks, car drivers recalled only 20% of the accidents and near-misses they had originally recorded |
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What did Wells and Olson's (2003) review of factors affecting eyewitness performance find? |
2 types System variables (under control of legal system e.g. interview procedure) Estimator variables (not under control of legal system e.g. sex and age of witness) Little evidence of effects of witness' sex and intelligence Effects of age, event duration, stress/arousal, cross-race identification |
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What did MacLin, MacLin and Malpass (2001) find on exposure time and delay for witness accuracy |
Increased exposure time usually improves recognition accuracy, reduce false identification
Increased delay usually decreases recognition accuracy, increases false identifications |
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What did Bahrick, Bahrick and Wittlinger (1975) find on delay for face recognition |
Little effect of delay on familiar face recognition (e.g. schoolmates from yearbooks) |
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What did Loftus, Schooler, Boone and Kline (1987) find on recalling events? |
People overestimate duration of events, especially when stressed (Time slows down e.g. battlefields) |
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What did Read (1995) find on exposure time for witness accuracy |
Increased exposure time can decrease performance by increasing witnesses' readiness to make false ids (confuse increased familiarity due to contextual info, with increased familiar to perceptual knowledge) |
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What did allport and postman (1947) find on effects of expectations and schemas on eyewitness testimony |
Pic of black man and white man 1st ppt describe the picture 2nd ppt heard but couldn't see picture, recall to other ppt Chinese whispers across many ppts In about 1/2 some ppts falsely report black man holding a knife |
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How is Allport and Postman's (1947) study of a picture of a white man and black man often mis-cited |
Said that ppts look at picture, then recall the black man holding a knife - was Chinese whispers |
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What did Bartlett's (1932) 'war of the ghosts' find? |
Memory distortions stem from attempts to make sense of events, relate them to known facts, beliefs, etc. |
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What did Neisser (1981) find on effects of expectations and schema on eyewitness testimony? |
James Dean and Watergate testimony: claimed to have super high accurate memory for convo, compared memory to tape recordings
Found his memory was fallible - memory for gist but inaccurate about temporal order of events, who said what to whom, precisely what was said, etc. |
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What did Bransford and Johnson (1972) find on effects of expectations and schema on eyewitness testimony? |
Washing clothes passage, doesn't make sense without comprehension of the passage being about washing clothes Recall better if have a schema around what it's about. |
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What is Yerkes-Dodson (1908) 'law' on stress/arousal for eyewitness testimony |
Mis-cited by saying: Inverted U shape relationship in witnesses Real cite: facilitating memory in mice, mild electric shocks = better memory than big electric shocks, no U shape thing (came later on) |
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What did Easterbrook (1959) suggest for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony |
Cue utilisation hypothesis: stress narrows attention to central items at expense of peripheral ones |
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What did Steblay (1992) find for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony |
"Weapon focus" effect - decrease recognition due to presence of a weapon |
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What did Peters (1988) find for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony |
Memory for face of nurse and assistant (aide) during immunisation Pulse rate higher for nurse than aide Aide identified better than nurse, from target- present lineup
(Scared of needle, focus on needle rather than the person holding it) |
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What did Yuille and Cutshall (1986) find for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony |
Naturalistic study of recall by 13 witnesses of a violent crime Their reported stress level at time of crime was not significantly related to subsequent recall, but higher stress witnesses were closer and more involved in the crime |
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What did Odinot, Wolters and Koppen (2009) find for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony |
Compared recall with CCTV in supermarket robbery 84% recall info was correct Items provided in free recall more accurate than with specific questions Large individual differences No effect of misinformation from TV crime re-enactment Weak accuracy/confidence correlation Higher rumination associated with higher confidence (not accuracy) Higher self-reported emotional impact associated with greater accuracy |
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What did Loftus, Loftus and Messo (1987) find for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony |
2 filmed versions of an event in a restaurant A: a man pointed a gun at cashier and she handed money B: man gave cheque, she gave money Recorded eye-movement, A fixate on weapon and show poorer recall, less able to identify robber |
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What does Loftus and Burns (1982) find for stress/arousal on eyewitness testimony? |
Violent and non violent films of crime Violence leads to less recall Memory impaired for details immediately preceding the violent scene and for detail occuring up to 2 mins before |
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What does Tollestrup, Turtle and Yuille (1994) show about experiments on stress' ecological validity |
Suspect id rates by irl witnesses: Victims of robbery: 46% Witnesses of robbery: 33% Victims of fraud: 25%
Maybe stress enhances recognition |
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What does Deffenbacher, Bornstein, Penrod and McGorty (2004) show about experiments on stress' ecological validity? |
2 kinds of effects of stress - defensive (e.g. flinch away) and orienting (e.g. in a study, gory video 'wow is that an eyeball' = orient towards it) Real crimes produce more defensive (recall less info) Lab studies produce more orienting (recall more info) Lab studies may underestimate impairment of eyewitness performance by stress |
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What does Valentine and Mesout (2009) show about experiments on stress' ecological validity? |
Effects of stress on memory for London dungeon action: High stress: 17% recognised him Low stress: 75% recognised him |
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What does Morgan et al (2004) show about experiments on stress' ecological validity? |
US army survival trainees 2 types of interrogation- high or low stress Positive ids higher in low-stress, false positives were lower
Large individual difs 42-45% unaffected by stress 42-50% worse when stressed 8-13% better when stressed No relationship between confidence and accuracy |
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What did Steblay (1992) show about experiments on stress' ecological validity? |
Meta-analysis of studies on 'weapon focus' Found it is fairly reliable |
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What did Pickel (1998,1999) show about experiments on stress' ecological validity? |
Novelty can produce similar effect to weapon, people distract by frozen chicken like a gun |
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What did Memon and Wright (1999) find about the influences of witnesses on each other? |
1995 Oklahoma bombing and hunt for 'John Doe' (Tim Mcblay's accomplice) People in car hire were interviewed and one suggested an accomplice No accomplice was real |
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What did Wright, Self and Justice (2000) find about the influences of witnesses on each other? |
Pairs unaware they saw 2 dif videos (present or absent "accomplice" to crime) Discussion produced conformity in pairs' responses |
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What did Gabbert, Memon and Bull (2003) find about the influences of witnesses on each other? |
Pairs saw dif videos of a theft 60% those not saw crime came to believe it had occurred 30% who had seen it came to believe it had not occurred |
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In the U.S. innocence project, over what % involved eyewitness misidentification? |
75 |
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What 2 things did Penrod and Bornstein (2007) find about ids in target-present and target-absent line ups |
In target-present: less then half ids are correct, about 25% false ids In target-absent: About 40% misids |
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How did Jenkins, White, VanMontfort and Burton's card sorting task, how many people were in the photos, and how many people did people guess there were? |
2 real people 7.5 median |
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What did Kemp, Towell and Pike's study on photos on credit cards find? |
Cashiers falsely accepted over 50% of fraudulent cards Cashiers falsely rejected over 10% of legitimate cards |
(What % accepted, rejected wrongly) |
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What did Bindemann and Sandfords study on id cards entail? |
3 id cards had to match with target face out of 30 faces All id cards were actually same person - dif angle and lighting |
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What did Bindemann and Sandford find on id cards |
67% correctly matched ID1, 46% ID2, 58% Only 38% matched the same target to all 3 IDs |
What % matched for each ID1,2,3? What % realised all were same target face |
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What did Bindemann and Sandford find on id cards |
67% correctly matched ID1, 46% ID2, 58% Only 38% matched the same target to all 3 IDs |
What % matched for each ID1,2,3? What % realised all were same target face |
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What is the butcher on the bus phenomenon |
Feeling of familiarity from a face, but cannot place where that person comes from |
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What is the butcher on the bus phenomenon |
Feeling of familiarity from a face, but cannot place where that person comes from |
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What did Brown, Deffenbacher and Sturgill study show |
Exposure to mugshots increase chances of false IDs at line up phase Witnesses remember familiarity but not it's context |
Source memory |
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What is the main idea of Bruce and Youngs model of face processing? |
The information of a face you have seen (expression age gender facial speech) encoded separately to info to do with identity/recognition |
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What do face recognition units do in Bruce and Youngs model of face processing? |
Signals familiarity |
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What are Person Identity Nodes in Bruce and Youngs model of face processing? |
Gateway to semantic information about the person |
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What did Wells, Lieppe and Ostrom find on inter-item similarity? |
When non witnesses had to identify a subject based solely on witness' verbal description 25/41 identify the witness Effect size 1.64 Suggested that line up distractors could have been omitted May aswell put the suspect alone |
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What did Wogalter, Marwitz and Leonard find on how police pick their lineup |
Foils (other people in lineup) picked on similarity to suspect Produces bias towards suspect (prototype effects) Alternative methods fairer - all faces equally similar to each other |
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What did Wolgalter, Malpass and Burger find about how foils are based on the suspect? |
Foiled picked subjectively (How much they think they look like the suspect) 94% police officers decided was fair based on own judgement 77% got second opinion |
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What are the 2 types of lineups |
Simultaneous and sequential |
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Difference between simultaneous and sequential lineups |
Simultaneous - witness must have relative judgement, picks line up member closest to their memory for criminal, infers this person is guilty Sequential - witness must have absolute judgment, whether person is criminal or not |
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Is simultaneous or sequential lineups better? |
Sequential |
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What did Steblay, Dysart, Fulero and Lindsay find on their comparison on sequential and simultaneous lineups |
Simultaneous allows more correct ids with target-present lineups BUT Sequential allows more correct rejections with target absent lineups (more important) |
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Are hybrid procedures (sequential presentation, seen more than once) good or bad? |
Bad |
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What were Neil vs Biggers 5 criteria for evaluating eyewitnesses |
Opportunity of the witness to view the offender at the time of crime Witness' degree of attention Level of witness' prior description to the offender Level of witness' certainty at the id parade Length of time between crime and id procedure |
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What did Wells and Bradfield find on confidence in lineups |
Feedback distorts subsequent confidence ratings and retrospective reports on how well they had seen the gunman |
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What is wells et al's accessibility hypothesis |
No on-line evaluation of performance so feedback is the best guide |
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Charman, Carluccio, Vallano and Gregory created what to explain why manipulations that discredit feedback reduce post identification feedback effects |
Selective cue integration framework |
What framework |
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3 stages (and meanings) of the selective cue integration framework for post identification feedback |
Assessment stage - witness assesses strength of internal cues for making a judgement Search stage - if cues are weak, search for external cues Evaluation stage - external cues evaluated for credibility, if credible then used to make judgement |
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What did Douglas and Steblays meta-analysis on post id feedback find |
Robust effect of confirming feedback of certainty Less powerful effect if disconfirming feedback |
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Douglass and Steblays 6 recommendation for good lineups |
Effective use of fillers (people that aren't the suspect) Blind administration of lineups (person who conducts doesn't know who is the witness) Warn witnesses that the culprit may or may not be present Sequential presentation Record eyewitness' assessment of their certainty at the time id is made No feedback on id performance |
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What did ellis shepherd and Davies find on reconstructing photofit faces from original photofit faces? |
Very difficult, even when target photofit face was present |
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What did ellis shepherd and Davies find on identifying photofit faces |
Identifying 6 original faces from a set of 36 faces using a photofit of the face created by other ppts gave results above chance but very poor |
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What did ellis shepherd and Davies find on attention with photofit? |
In watching a video of a man reading, attending to the man's face rather than the passage gave no benefits to the photofit created of the man - all rated as poor likeness |
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What did ellis shepherd and Davies find on comparing photofit with freehand sketching? |
Sketches better if target face present during construction Photofit better if using memory Sketches simple and vague Photofit poor likeness even when face in view while constructed |
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Are verbal descriptions better/worse than photofit? |
Better |
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Is E-fit better than photofit? |
Not when constructed using memory, only when face is in view at time of construction |
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What's better about E-fit than photofit |
Much wider selection of features More ethnically specific sets Can change spacing between feature e.g. wider arms |
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5 reasons Facial Reconstruction Systems performance is so poor? |
Bad eyewitnesses Equipment limitations (restricted feature-sets) Problems in method of construction (verbal mediation issues - talking to police officers to construct it) Inappropriate "feature-based" theoretical basis, rather than "configural-based" processing Configural processing means minor errors in features/configuration impede face recognition |
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What is the relationship between photofit constructions and verbal descriptions? |
No correlation |
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What is verbal overshadowing? |
Where verbally describing a face impairs subsequent recognition of the face |
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Describing a face impairs recognition of what object? |
Cars |
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What's the theoretical basis behind verbal overshadowing? |
Verbal description encourages innappropriate processing strategies which hinder retrieval of face-appropriate info |
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Is recognition lost when featural info goes? |
No, blurring and pixellation still able to recognise if know the person |
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Does inversion increase or decrease sensitivity to configural info? |
Decrease |
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What is the Thatcher illusion |
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What is the composite face effect? |
Take top half one face, bottom half of another, put together, integrates into 1 new face in our mind Inversion abolishes this effect, abolishes the configural processes that you do on face |
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Emotion influence on the composite face effect |
If top half angry bottom half happy, bottom half gets in the way |
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Age influence on the composite face effect |
Average ages of top and bottom halves |
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What is the "whole over part" advantage? |
Features are recognised better if they are presented within a whole face than if presented in isolation or within a scrambled face |
Faces |
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If recognising a familar face, what features are they better recognised from? |
Internal - eyes nose mouth |
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If recognising an unfamilar face, what features are they better recognised from? |
External features - hair, face shape |
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4 ways to improve recognisability of composites |
Using multiple composites to aid recognition Improved composites systems Stereotyping and composite production Using multiple techniques to improve recognition |
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What is set averaging |
If you see a series of stimuli (shapes faces), tend to create an average of the stimuli |
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How can multiple composites aid recognition (3) |
People set averaging with the faces, construct a common denominator face Morphs of 4 witnesses composites were recognised better than one their own, people were better at creating averages in their head however. When 1 person makes 4 separate attempts at composites, has similar benefits, between ppts are better however |
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What are 2 improved composite systems |
Evo-fit and E-fit 6 |
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What do evo-fit and E-fit 6 do? |
Construct composites by an iterative process, using genetic algorithms: based on configural processing |
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How were stereotyping and composite production studied? |
Gateaway driver face was morphed from British and Asian faces so ambiguous If other names were Indian, ppts created much more Indian looking faces If other names were British, ppts created much more British |
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What techniques can you use along side evo-fit to increase recognition |
Cognitive interview of witness focussed on configural Blurring of external features Vertical stretching of finished composites |
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Meissner and Brigham' meta analysis found people are how much more likely to identify own race than other race |
2x |
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What race did Sporer find is worse at recognising other races |
Whites |
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What races did Sporer find more likely to be identified in lineups |
Non-whites and non-germans |
2 |
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What did Sporer suggest to be the 2 aspects of ORB |
Impaired recognition Shift in response bias (^d false positives due to increased readiness to say 'seen before') |
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How does prejudice relate to ORB |
No correlation with explicit or implicit prejudice measures Perhaos indirectly, by reducing contact with other races |
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What is physiognomic variability? |
The degree of variability in the face |
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How good is physiognomic variability in an explanation to ORB? |
Little evidence |
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What is the best explanation for ORB |
Inter-racial contact |
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When does own face preference for faces emerge? |
3 months |
? Months old |
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By what age do babies show ORB in recognition? |
6-9 months, not 3 months |
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Did korean chilren adopted by caucasian families show ORB? |
Showed reverse ORB |
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In sporers in group/ out group model, how are in group faces processed? |
Automatic configural processing |
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In sporers in group/ out group model, how are out group faces processed? |
Face categorisation first Then featural/configural coding, stereotypes, disregard or shallower encoding occurs |
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5 factors influencing identifying an other race face |
Attention at encoding Perceptual expertise Distinctiveness of target vs other people in ethnic group Difficulty of task Social factors (e.g. motivation, expectation) |
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What is Valentines multidimensional face space model |
People encode faces by interplay of factors e.g. eye separation and nose length |
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How does Valentines face space model link to ORB |
Other race faces are encoded in multi-dimensional face space with respect to inappropriate own-race norms |
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In a study that changed skin, was facial structure or skin colour more important for producing ORB |
Facial structure |
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Is the holistic processing stronger or weaker in other-race faces |
Weaker |
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Is there an ORB for scrambled or blurred faces? |
Both |
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What does ORB for scrambled and blurred faces imply? |
ORB influences on both facial configurations and features |
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What part of faces do black people fixate on ? |
Nose |
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What part of faces do white people fixate on? |
Eyes |
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Does cueing where on faces to observe affect ORB |
Yes, reverse ORB |
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What is the ambiguous race face effect |
Individuals are better at recognising ambiguous faces if categorised by their race (hispanic hair) vs other race (black hair) |
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What did a study on background colour and in group/out group face recognition show |
Simply labelling faces as a different university or different personality type by having the faces on different background colours affected face recognition |
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Issue with the study on colour background and out group face recognition |
Not really replicable |
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What are 2 other types of bias in face recognition |
Own gender bias Own age bias |
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What does instructing individuals to play attention to what differentiates faces from same race, especially in faces of a different race lead to? |
Significantly increased sensitivity to other race faces, to level of same race but reduces same race sensitivity slightly |
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How does oxytocin relate to ORB |
Giving ppts oxytocin enhances memory for other race faces if taken before, but not after, viewing faces |
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How does oxytocin enhance memory for other race faces |
Reduces amygdala activity (emotional response to other race faces) Facilitates attention to socially significant face regions (eyes) |
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How many /18 7yr olds described teachers non existent beards |
16/18 |
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4 reasons children can be problematic witnesses |
Poorer knowledge-base: may understans less of what they see Less well-developed metamemory skills may lead to pooree encoding and recall Poorer reality monitoring may lead to difficulty in distinguishing between fact and fantasy Greater susceptibility to misinformation effects from interviewers |
Both social and cog factors |
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4 reasons children can be problematic witnesses |
Poorer knowledge-base: may understans less of what they see Less well-developed metamemory skills may lead to pooree encoding and recall Poorer reality monitoring may lead to difficulty in distinguishing between fact and fantasy Greater susceptibility to misinformation effects from interviewers |
Both social and cog factors |
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At what age do children reach same level of correct ids |
12 |
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Where is there a dip in eyewitness recognition |
Puberty |
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What is the encoding switch diamond and carey suggested in |
Piecemeal to configural |
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What age is the encoding switch diamond and carey suggests |
10 |
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What is paraphernalia? |
Equipment/apparatus |
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Evidence against Diamond and Careys encoding switch |
4-5 yr olds can use configural info but are easily distracted by paraphernalia |
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Evidence for configural processing in children by Mondloch, Le Grand and Maurer |
Jane and sisters have featural spacing or contour differences Children saw faces upright and inverted, had to pick out jane All ages similar in accuracy on featural and contour xhanges |
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How does the evidence for configural processing in children show how children are still processing faces less configurally than adults |
Children less effected by inversion effect |
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What age did Pozzulo and Lindsay find children performed at adult standards on target present lineups |
5 |
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What age did Pozzulo and Lindsay find children performed at adult standards on target absent lineups |
Poorer performance even at age 14 |
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How does the accuracy of face processing ability change after age 5 (Crookes and McKone) |
Stays the same |
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What did Fitzgerald and Price's meta-analysis find on children/young adults/older adults performance with TP and TA lineups |
Young adults better than children and old adults |
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Children and free recall +/- |
Accurate but don't recall a lot |
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In study on delay on recall, what was the effect of 1 day on children |
No effect |
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In study on delay on recall, what was the effect of 5 months on children |
Reduced recall, the younger the group, the greater the reduction Increased inaccuracy Suggestibility increased with children but not adults |
3 things |
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What are the qualitative dif between child reports and adult reports |
Younger child report more action details and less perpetrator details |
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In a study where they asked children to imagine stimuli and also presented stimili, then asked children how many times the stimuli was actually presented, what was found? |
Confusion no greater for children than adults |
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Term for how much you recognise fantasy from real life |
Reality monitoring |
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In a study on source memory, what was found? |
Younger children made more source confusions than older, worse when testing was delay |
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3 reasons source memory is worse in children |
Memory for source is an inference, children worse at rhis Age difference in visual imagery (younger better than older so more scope for confusion between visual imagery evoked by summary vs real imagery in video itself) Poorer at encoding info about the source itself |
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What did otgaar et al find on false memories for 1st day at school? |
Even older kids falsely believe some implausible events (e.g. ufo abduction) |
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How is memory for convesation after a year |
Very poor Strong bias to say yes |
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4 ways to improve children's recall |
Social support (e.g. friend present) Rapport building by interviewer Context reinstatement Cognitive interview |
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What parts of the cognitive interview may not be helpful for children |
Recall in reverse order and change perspective confuse children |
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How can a lineup be modified to fix the issue of target absent in children |
Provide extra choice e.g. wild card |
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What 3 things are unrelated to a childs suggestibility |
SES Gender IQ |
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What % of all correlations were significant between demographic, psychosocial and cognitive factors and susceptibility? |
16% |
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What are the 2 factors in children that increase resistance to suggestion |
Advanced language skills Secure relationships with parents |
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What other factor to resisting susceptibility do Clarke-Stewart, Malloy and allhusen add? |
Self-control |
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Welsh and Farrington found a crime reduction of what % where CCTV has been installed and where |
16%, mainly car parks |
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In Gill and Spriggs study, how many /13 CCTV systems associated with a significant reduction |
2/13 |
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In Kemp, Towell and Pikes study on supermarkets credit cards, over ?% falsely accepter fraudulent cards over ?% falsely rejected legitimate ones |
50% 10% |
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How was performance in the study where subjects had to match 2 robbers shown in video stills |
Poor |
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What did Megreya and Burton find on unfamiliar face matching using photos or real ppl |
Little difference between live and photo targets, both show unfamiliar face encoding is poor |
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In davis and valentines study where a live person was shown on video, what % of trials match person and video |
50% |
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In davis and valentines study where a live person was shown on video, what % of trials match person and video |
50% |
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What is a technique for objectively establishing identity matches |
Facial mapping |
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3 types of facial mapping techniques |
Photogrammetry - measurements from images Chimeric faces Video wipe techniques |
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What scale is used by facial mappers to express their opinion on whether a match has been established |
Bromby scale |
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What is the scale like in Bromby Scale |
0 - lends no support To 5 - lends powerful support |
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Issue with the Bromby scale |
Subjective scale, just opinion expressed quantitatively |
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What is photoantropometry |
Angular measurements of a face |
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How good is photoanthropometry |
Bad - unreliable and invalid |
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How can photoanthropometry allow for id verifications? |
If multiple distances and angular measurements included |
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What is the issue with aligning chimeras and video wipe techniques for facial mapping |
Evoke holistic processing and a bias towards suggest the face (made up of 2 people) was the same person |
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Who is at risk of being stalked |
Students Clinicians of stalkers |
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Are men or women more likely to be stalkers |
Men |
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What 3 things can the court offer for stalking |
Restraining order Prison sentences of up to 5 years Fines (up to £5000) |
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Are most stalkers known or unknown to victims |
Known |
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Are most stalkers known or unknown to victims |
Known |
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What % of stalkers are male |
80-90% |
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What % of victims of stalking are female |
Approx 80% |
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What act suggests stalking as a crime |
Protection of Freedoms Act |
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What act do most stalkers get prosecuted for |
Criminal Justice Act |
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What is the new Bill on stalking hopefully coming into play soon |
Stalking protection bill |
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What is the issue with current laws on stalking? |
Existing laws less able to capture 'stranger' stalking Victim requires protection Criminal penalty for breach |
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Is stress to the victim a good way to assess stalking severity |
No- some of the best stalking = absolutely stealthy and completely unknown about |
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What is the mean stalkers age |
Mid 30s (wide range) |
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Background of stalkers |
All backgrounds Possibly immigrants/low income |
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What is the primary victim of stalking |
Individuals who are the stalkers prime interest |
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Who are the secondary victims to stalking |
Someone targeted by the stalker due to their connection with the primary victim, often fam, friends, work colleagues |
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What are the 2 general motivations for clients who stalk clinicians |
Resentment Distorted/perverse attachment |
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What are the 2 general motivations for clients who stalk clinicians |
Resentment Distorted/perverse attachment |
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What 2 mental illness are often comorbid with stalking |
Personality disorder Psychosis |
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What are more persistent stalkers likely to be? |
Suffering from mental illness |
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What is the most promonent risk profiling for stalking? |
Structured professional judgement |
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What 2 factors does the structured professional judgement contain? |
Static factors (e.g. age, gender) Dynamic factors (e.g. status of mental illness |
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What 4 things does the structured professional judgement consider? |
Violence Persistence Recurrence Psychological damage (of the stalker) |
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What are the 5 types of stalking according to Mullen, Pathe and Purcell |
Rejected Resentful Intimacy seekers Incompetent suitor Predatory |
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What is the rejected stalker? |
Break down of a closer relationship leading to attempt to reconcile, exact revenge or salvage damaged self esteem |
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What is the resentful stalker |
Victim of injustice or humiliation, often arising from delusional paranoid illness or paranoid narcissistic Also desire revenge or validation |
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What is the intimacy seeker stalker |
Loneliness or a lack of love or a confidant, usually driven by mental illness Fantasised or delusional relationship substitutes for real relationship |
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What is the incompetent suitor |
Emerges out of loneliness or lust Contact in the hope of a friendship or sexual relationship Either indifferent or blind to the disinteresr or distress of the victim Usually brief |
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What is the predatory stalker |
Usually deviant sexual practices Sadism/psychopathy Need power/control over another Often end in voilent act |
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Which type of stalking often account for significant proportion of workplace stalkers |
The resentful |
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What type of stalking is John Cannon an example of what type of stalking |
Predatory |
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What type of stalking is Tatiana tarasoff an example of? |
The rejected |
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What % of stalking cases that make it to court contains violence |
50% |
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What are the 4 predictors of violence in stalking |
Poor intimate relationship Threats Substance misuse Absence of psychosis |
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What stalker-victim relationship is most likely to be violent |
Ex intimates |
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What stalkers are more likely toe be associated with stranger/acquiantance violence |
Substance misusing Young |
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What increases likelihood of persistance of stalking |
Ex intimates Psychosis |
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What decreases likelihood of persistence of stalking |
Strangers/acquiantances Those that threaten, cause property damage and assault |
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Where can police intervention not help in stalking |
Intimate stalkers - police intervention usually distorted |
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What are Howitts 4 primary levels of analysis |
Individual Group Community (locality) Societal (ecological) |
Individual... |
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5 theories on societal perspectives on crime |
Anomie/Strain theory Absolute derivation/conflict theory Relative deprivation/inequality Deterrence/rational choice theories Feminist theories |
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What is the anomie/strain theory |
Economic success = pinnacle of social desirability BUT prosperity only available to a limited few Inability to achieve economic success causes 'anomie' (discontent) Either achieve success through deviant means Or adapt to strain/anomic by retreated to alcohol, drug addiction, suicide, vacancy |
American dream |
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What is the absolute deprivation/conlict theory of crime over societies |
Capitalism - few 'haves' vs lots of 'have nots' unequal power relations, poverty and inequality in general Crime is socially constructed label placed by powerful groups onto less power groups to control them |
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What is the relative deprivation/inequality theory to crime in societies |
About perceived inequality Feelings of deprivation are relative, relate to social comparison theory Causes stress, resentment, uprising and deviance |
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What is the deterrence/rational choice theory of crime in society |
Crime is rational choice Costs vs risks Crime can be reduced by increasing risks, punishment for e.g. get tough policies |
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Whag is the feminist theories to crime |
Males commit more crime, women more victims Males seek power Women who deviate - treated differently (either mentally ill or monsters) |
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4 community theories on crime |
Social disorganisation theory Routine activity theory Differential opportunity theory Social support/altruism theory |
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What is the social disorganisation theory to crime in communities |
Shaw and McKay Chicago study Crime a function of neighbourhood dynamics not individuals who live there Social disorganisation produces 1) lack of behagioural control mechanisms 2) cultural 'transmission' of delinquent values People move away from economically deprived areas as soon as possible (upwards social mobility) |
Study |
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What is the routine activity theory to crime in communities |
Motivated offender (why person motivated not explained) What "activates" the offender? Social organisation (or lack of) affects our routine activities Absence of a capable guardian Suitable victim Routine activities make us more or less likely to become victime |
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What is the differential opportunity theory to crime in communities |
Not just dif access to goals (anomie/strain theory) Also dif access to role models and opportunities for criminal ways of behaving to develop Bandura SLT |
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What is the social support/altruism theory to crime in communities |
Social support and altruism decrease crime, groups vary in how much social support is given to its inhabitants Thus crime rates vary across communities/societies |
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4 theories on the effect of the group on the individual in crime |
Subcultural Delinquency Theories Differential Association theory Criminogenic factors in childhood Groups and socialisation influence theories |
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What is the subcultural delinquency theory to crime in groups |
Large urban areas can create cultural conventions supporting crime More likely to come in contact sith people with crimongenic interests People more likely to create networks through being in close proximity Competition for resources Within group biases then develop and delinquent subcultures develop Young ppl particularly susceptible |
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What is the differential association theory to crime in groups |
How come offenders not why Social interactions affects drives motives attitudes Supports or discourages crime |
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What are the criminogenic factors in childhood |
Parents Punitive child rearing practices and attitudes Lack of love or rejection Laxness (poor monitoring, lack of supervision) Family disruption Deviant parental characteristics (criminality, mental health problems, substance abuse) |
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What is the groups and socialisation influence theories to crime |
Farrington: childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial personality disorder have the same aetiological precursors Low family income Poor housing Large fam Convicted parents Harsh/erratic parental discipline Low intelligence Early school leaving |
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What did Farrington suggest to be protective factors from delinquency |
Personal resources - technical/spatial intelligence, flexible temperaments, approach-oriented, more positive self-esteem and active coping strategies Social resources - satisfied with social support and experienced openness, autonomy and conflict in residual institution |
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What did the Cambridge study on childhood to adolescence show |
Offenders deviant in many aspect of life Often started early (peak 19-28 yrs) Small proportion (7%) account for nearly 50% crime |
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What 3 intervention/prevention were given after the cambridge study by farrington |
Stable accommodation Employment Substance use |
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What is the psychodynamic theory of crime |
Abnormal or criminal behaviour results from abnormal development of the psyche Weak superego (due to abnormal relationship with parents) Deviant superego (internalise same sex parent, parent have deviant behaviours) Powerful superego (anxious n guilty, commit crimes in order to get caught) |
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What are Eysencks 3 factors in model of personality traits |
Emotional stability Impulsivity Extraversion |
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What is personality disorder |
Symptoms are problematic extensions of normal persobality traits Unusual or extreme personality types Causing suffering to individuals or others Hindering functuoning |
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Is personality disorder in a category or on a continuum |
Continuum |
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What are the 3 Ps in personality disorder |
Problematic - cause distress and impaired function Persistent Pervasive |
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Dif between PD and mental illness |
Mental illness has identifiable onset interfering with baseline functioning Sufferers often return to a state of wellness between episidss of illness Many can be treated with medication |
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What is a biological vulnerability to personality disorder |
Infants temperament |
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What is the current dominant model for PD |
Biopsychosocial model |
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If people don't develop healthy attachments, what 3 things do they have problems with |
Understanding own thoughts and feelings Understanding others thoughts, feelings and intentions Less resilient to later adverse experiences |
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5 PD often seen in offenders |
Antisocial Borderline Narcissistic Paranoid Psychopathy |
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Is antisocial PD most common in males or females |
Males |
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Is borderline PD most common in males or females |
Females |
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Other name for borderline PD |
Emotionally unstable |
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What are the 3 consequences/criteria of borderline PD |
Problems with emotional regulation Unstable relationships Unstable self-image |
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What is psychopathy? |
Extreme antisocial PD Addition of narcism, paranoid, sadistic and/or borderline |
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Who coined psychopathy |
Bob Hare |
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What % of prisoners have PD |
60-70% |
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Offenders with PD are more likely to what? (4) |
Re-offend violently or sexually Be recalled to prison after release Drop out of accredited programmes Complain about professionals |
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What types of PD show highest rates of sexual offending |
Antisocial Borderline Narcissistic |
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3 types of therapy for PD |
Dialect behavioural therapy Mentalisation based therapy Schema therapy |
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What is dialect behaviour therapy good for |
Borderline |
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What is mentalisation based therapy good for |
Antisocial |
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What is schema therapy good for |
Borderline |
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What is the personality disorder pathways project |
Collab between criminal justice system and NHS to reduce reoffending and recall to prison |
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What is actus reus |
Guilty act Voluntary, criminal intent |
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What is mens reus |
Guilty mind State of mind, intention, understand consequences |
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Why was there an increased view of mental illness as frightening/violent? |
News, TV/film, social media |
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Angermeyer and Shulzes anamysis of german tabloid newspapers |
Largesr proportion of stories about the mentally ill concerned murder, multiple murder, physical injury/GBH, attempted murder, rape/sexual abuse, multiple infanticide and infanticide Represtended 68% of all crimes reported by paper |
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Is it true that a high proportion of people in contact with the criminal justice system have mental health problems |
Yes |
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Who suggested there is no support for the premise that people with mental illness are more dangerous than demographically matched populations |
Monahan and Steadman |
M&S |
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What does current research think the link between mental illness and criminality is |
Modest |
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Self reported violence %ages in no psycho, schizos and schizos + substance abuse/personality disordwe |
2 8 13 |
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Prevalence of schizo in homocide perps vs gen pop |
5% perp 1% gen pop |
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What was BPD associated with? |
Intimate partner violence |
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Is family history of crime linked to severity of crime |
V strong predictor |
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Are majority of violent crimes committed by people with/without MHP |
Without |
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What % of people who commit suucide are experiencing mental distress |
90% |
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Im some cases an individual's criminal history has been connected to recurring what episodes? |
Manic |
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What are command hallucinations |
Hearing voices telling them to do something (violence) |
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Does command hallucinations link to crime |
No, rates no dif in forensic and non-forensic populations |
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How does threat and control override symptoms link to crime |
Delusions cause feelings of personal threat and pathological thoughts that override self-control |
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3 types of violent offenders with schizophrenia |
Early starters - antisocial behaviour emerges in childhood/early adolescence, before illness onset, constant across lifespan. Largest group show no antisocial behaviour prior to the onset of the illness then repeatedly engage in aggressive behaviour towards others. A small group of individuals show no aggressive behaviour for 1 or 2 decades after illness onset and then engage in serious violence |
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In Fazal et als longitudinal study, what was found bipolar and violent behaviours |
Increased risk most linked to substance abuse and increased risk for violent crime between the siblings of those with bipolar disorder |
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How does mental health affect SES |
Individuals with mental disorders tens to experience a downwards drink in SES, less support, less money, worse housing... |
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In the newer models of DSM, have listed disorders involving crime increased or decreased in % |
Increased |
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Are those with MHP more likely to be victim or perpetrators? |
Victim |
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What did Teplin et als epidemiological study in Chicago on 936 people with severe mental illness vs control show |
Approx 25% of SMI group experienced violent crime in the last year (6-23 times greater than gen pop) |
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According to Hodkins et als study on self report violence on 205 people with SMI diagnosis, what % of men and what % if women reported violence in past 6 months |
57% M 48% W |
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Are males or females diagnosed more with psychotic disorders |
Males |
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One study showed what to be the best predictor of victimisation |
Drug abuse (in men) |
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How has the portrayal of mental disorders and violence changed in the most recent years (glasgow media group survey of uk tv) |
Fewer portrayals of violence and new types of narratives But, characters are often posing a risk to others/violent |
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What are the 3 inbuilt social cog processes involved in stigma |
Social categorisation leads to social identification leads to social comparison |
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What did the stigma shout survey find |
9/10 people with MH problems report stigma has a negative impact on their life 2/3 fear of discrimination prevents activities |
? people with MH problems report stigma has a negative impact on their life? fear of discrimination prevents activities |
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Who added to self-stigma |
Festinger |
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What was festingers contribution to stigma |
Social comparison theory |
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What is the physical impact of stigma |
Poorer physical health Reduce life expectancy |
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What are the social and economical impacts of stigma |
Less employment Less independent housing (more of a fam burden) Significant societal burden? (Less funding, legal restrictions on opportunities and contact with communities and society) |
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3 public campaigns on stigma and mental health |
Time for change Shift See me |
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A study in the effectiveness of the national anti-stigma programme time for change showed what |
Improvement in public knowledge, attitudes and behaviour towards people with mental health problems in England |
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What is the HCR 20 |
Used to assess risk of violence |
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Difference between aggression and violence |
Violence isn't always caused by anger Aggression doesn't come without anger (can include gossiping???) |
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Do men and women commit different number of violent acts? |
Yes, males more |
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What is the cog theory of aggression |
Media violence helps shape our evaluation of the world Executive function deficits |
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Hollins (1993)s metaanalysis called "what works" showed what? |
Recommended multinodel treatment |
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3 multifactorial models of aggression |
Social cognitive info processing (Crick & Dodge, 1994) Social cognitice theory (Bandura) Cognitive neoassociationist aggression model |
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What is the social cognitive theory to aggression (Bandura) |
Like SLT but with individual differences acknowledging knowledge, expectations and attitudes, so observe others and decide if thats an action we would like to take |
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What is the cognitive neoassociationistic aggression model |
Unpleasant experience leads to negative feelings leading to either angry or fearful thoughts and associations, schemas (cues in environment) guide which, fear leads to flight, anger leads to fight |
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Who created the general aggression model |
Anderson and bushman |
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What is the general aggression model |
Person and situ affect feelings, thought arousal. These influence appraisal and decision making processes These affect aggressive or non aggressive behaviour Biological and environmental factors influence aggression as well |
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What did Huesmann show about aggression |
Aggression can be primed Media, cues, discussions/memories of emotive event Gun primes aggressive cognition |
Pri |
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What are hostile attribution biases |
Tendency to interpret others as having a hostile event Over assessing provocation Cognitive distortions about reactions Dif schemas can be triggered by seemingly very similar situational variables Cognitive distortions |
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Evidence of the violent offenders over assessing provocation |
Violent offenders found to have higher levels of aggressive reading of ambiguous statements than control Were found to have better recall of hostile cue words than control group |
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What are the cog distortions about reactions in hostile attribution bias |
Learn that violence and aggression is necessart to show anti-social allegiances, gain status and dominance |
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What is the link between self-esteem and violence |
Controversial Low SE = increased externalisation Combo of high SE and narcissism = highest levels of agg Some say not linked |
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Walker and Bright, 2009, suggested there is a link between SE and violence if SE is high over-inflated. Why? |
Makes you more vulnerable to psychological attack, cannot take humiliation and embarrassment, macho response to preserve SE and save face |
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What 4 emotions linked with violence and aggression |
Anger jealousy shame |
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What are scripts |
Set of insteuctions, learnt, that guide our behaviour |
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How does scripts relate to aggression |
People prone to aggression have fewer non-aggressive scripts, and their non-aggressive scripts are less well rehearsed |
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Displacement of aggression is from what theory |
Pscyhodynamic |
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4 other factors in increasing aggression |
Alcohol/drugs (disinhibition, processing problems) Mental illness (psychosis, depression) Stress Pain (increased leads to higher chance of violence) |
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2 protective factors to decrease likelihood of someone becoming aggressive/violent |
Level of arousal (lowered in those with conduct disorders who are less inclined to experience negative affect in response to violence) Moral reasoning (code to not hurt others set in childhood, H/ can erode over time when drives outweigh codes or dehumanising the victim) |
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What is the general age of sex offenders |
Range in age, from young teen to senior citizen |
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Common characteristics of sexual offenders |
Social/economical isolation Disturbed backgrounds Attachment issues Lack meaningful relationships Abuse Psychosexual development Self harm |
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How do the female sex offenders characteristics differ from men |
Includes eating disorders Uncontrolled sexual behaviour Removes High impulsivity Antisocial behaviour in teens |
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Personality of a sex offender |
Low SE Low assertiveness High emotional loneliness Poor interpersonal skills Intimacy deficits Emotional dsyregulation External LoC Impulsive |
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Cognitive distortions in a sex offender |
Emotional congruence towards children (exaggerated emotional and cog affiliation with children e.g. enjoy spending time with them, view relationships as intimate and reciprocal) Entitlement beliefs Poor victim empathy |
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5 single factor theories on sex offending |
Theories of cog distortions (schema theories) Psychodynamic Behavioural Attachment theory Feminist theory |
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Psychodynamic theory to sex offending |
Offend to get over childhood trauma Regression later in life suggests sex offenders have weak morals (superegos) and powerful sexual impulses (ids) |
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Behavioural theory to sex offending |
Fantasies start in adolescents Garland and Doughers "victim to victimization" - offender often feels like a victim, identify with imitates bully/oppressor to feel better, make others feel weak and powerless |
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5 multifactorial theories |
Finkelhor's precondition model Marshall and Barbaree's Integrated Theory Ward and Siegert's Pathway Model Malamuth's Confluence Model of Sexual Aggression Biological Theory |
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What is Finkelhor's precondition model |
Lots of factors; steps Drive to offend Overcome barriers/resistance in own head (create cog distortions) Create opportunity (e.g. grooming) Overcome victim resistance (physical) |
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What is Finkelhor's precondition model |
Lots of factors; steps Drive to offend Overcome barriers/resistance in own head (create cog distortions) Create opportunity (e.g. grooming) Overcome victim resistance (physical) |
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What is marshall and Barbaree's Integrated Theory |
Individual socially inept (developmentally adverse events, poor parenting, inconsistent and harsh discipline, physical and sexual abuse) Leads to deviant sexual behaviour |
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What is Ward and Siegerts pathway model |
Multiple pathways leading to sexual abuse of a child Core set of dysfunctional psychological mechaniams Constitute vulnerability factors incl learning events, biological, cultural and environmental factors |
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What is Ward and Siegerts pathway model |
Multiple pathways leading to sexual abuse of a child Core set of dysfunctional psychological mechaniams Constitute vulnerability factors incl learning events, biological, cultural and environmental factors |
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What is Malamuth's confluence model of sexual aggression |
The con-fluece model- 2 factors conflated together Interaction of 2 developmental pathways- Hostile Masculinity (idea of masculinity that is dominant powerful and repressive) and Interpersonal Sex (if sex is a way to connect to the person) |
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What is the biologcial theory of sex offenders |
Dysfunction of the hormone and NS Consequences of the male pattern of cerebral organisation (sex hormones too high?) |
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Difference between static and dynamic |
Dynamic is constantly changing Static is staying the same |
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What are 3 static risk assessments |
Static-99 Risk matrix 2000 The sex offence risk appraisal guide |
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What are 2 dynamic risk assessments |
The sexual violence risk - 20 The risk for sexual violence protocol |
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4 types of medical treatment to sex offenders |
Psychotropic medication (SSRIs) Anti-libidinal hormonal medication Chemical castration (drug reduce testosterone levels to curb libido) Surgical castration |
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4 types of psychological treatments to sex offending |
Orgasmic reconditioning (masturbate to a deviant fantasy, beforing climax switch immediately to a non-deviant fantasy). Covert sensitisation: pair deviant sexual thoughts with imagery of aversive consequences of reoffending sexually, may be followed by a "reward" sequence. Shame aversion therapy (public shame or humiliation, one case attempted suicide). CBT |
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2 Rehab theories |
Risk-need-responsivity Good lives mode |
Just names |
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What is the risk-need-responsivity? |
Risk- match risk with treatment intensity Need- focus on criminigenic needs/dynamic risk factors Responsivity- ensure programme comprehension |
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What is the good lives model |
Complimentary to risk needs responsivity Meaningful and motivating to the offender Ensures we examine all aspects of their life, not just dynamic risk factors/criminogenic need |
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Who gave a definition of deception |
Vrij |
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What was Vrij's definition on deception |
Successful or deliberate attempt, without forewarning, to create in another a belief which the communicator considers to be untrue |
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What were Bok's 4 reasons for deception |
Social lubrication Save face Avoid conflict Establish/maintain power |
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Why is there a false belief in how good we are at lie detection |
False statistical sample, professional lie catching deal with sample that contains more liars so believe they are good |
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3 properties of lies |
Content is affective (responses outside cognitive lod) Lying creates mental ('cognitive' load) Lies can be rehearsed |
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Video of a professional lie detector who trains people to catch liars e.g. in their business |
Susan Finch |
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What did Susan Finch say |
If a person lying will see them: Rub nose, change mouth, artificial smile, pausing and stuttering, eyes moving, finger over mouth, gaze aversion, tremour in the lips, more hand movements, jaw is down n tight, feet show nervousness |
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Video of who contradicts susan finch |
Karen Matthews- hid kid, pretend lost for money |
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3 theories of lying (detecting lying behaviours) |
Multi-factor Model Interpersonal/behavioural control deception theory Cognitive load/effort |
Just names |
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What is the mutlifactor model of lying |
Emotion influences behaviour Guilt - gaze aversion Arousal - eye blinking, self adapters, speech hesitations and errors, higher pitch Emotion influences behaviourGuilt - gaze aversionArousal - eye blinking, self adapters, speech hesitations and errors, higher pitchNegative emotions - withdrawal, avoiding eye contact, decreased self adaptersExcitement - increased smiling and movements Negative emotions - withdrawal, avoiding eye contact, decreased self adapters Excitement - increased smiling and movements |
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What is the interpersonal/behavioural control deception theory |
Simultaneous communication task, liar and person being deceiced work together to make the lie work, liars not only have to manage what they say but also the way they receive it Not all behaviours are controllable Lack of insight into our normal behaviour Concentrate on speech, behaviour is neglected |
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What is the cognitive load/effort theory (Vrij) |
Lying requires extra mental effort Thinking and monitoring your own behavioural causes: Reduced blinking and fidgeting, more speech hesitations, fewer hand and arm movements, neglected body language |
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4 methods for studying deception detection |
Surveys Transcript analysis Experiments Statistical meta-analyses |
Just names |
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Whos survey found police officers think they are very good at interviewing and lie detection, over-confidence bias, people think they are better than they are |
Kassin et al |
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What did Walsh and Bulls Transcript analysis show |
4 dif types of rapport building: none, start, end or throughout Only throughout gain any value |
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What did Leach et als experiment on detecting deception show |
Show judges block wearing of face veils during trials People more accurate at telling if people are truth telling/liar when people are wearing veils Goes against predictions by many |
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What did Bond and DePaulos statistical meta-analysis show? |
Mean lie detection performances of groups of people are barely above chance Performance 50-85%, mean 54% |
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What did Hartwig and Bonds statistical meta-analysis show |
People rarely rely on wrong cues Cues are just very weak, almost undetectable |
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How does emotion and cog load contradict/compare in deception |
Emotion increase eye blinks and body movements, cog load decrease |
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Name of woman that killed 2 sons and lied, used for linguistic analysis "they wanted me. They needed me. And now i can't help them" (past tense, emotive) |
Susan smith |
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3 linguistic analyses of verbal/written behaviours |
Credibility assessment Personality assessment Authorship analysis |
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3 linguistic analyses of verbal/written behaviours |
Credibility assessment Personality assessment Authorship analysis |
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What are the 3 types of credibility assessment |
Content counts Style matching Reality monitoring |
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What is authorship analysis |
Looking at language to see if its the same person supplying the information |
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What is content counts for credibility assessments |
Counting the words Show patterns arrise |
Just what it is |
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Using content counts, what 6 things were found more in genuine |
Lexical and content diversity, temporal info, perceptual details, first person, causation (i knew i left my keys because...) |
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Using content counts, what 6 things were found more in fabricated |
Verb use (i did this) Simple descriptions Negations Modifiers (the dark room, trying to make language sound credible) First person plurals- we vs I Passive voice (it happened not we did it) |
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What did Youyou find about computer-based judgements |
Can use facebook likes to predict personality tyoes |
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Which scandal used the kind of social media info |
The Cambridge Analytica Fraudulently took fb likes sold them so they could be targetted by politicians |
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What linguistic style matching |
Mirroring language, a measure of grouo cohensiveness |
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What was Taylor et als study on style matching |
Insider threat |
Name |
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What did Taylor et als insider threat study show |
Insiders perform in an our group way so have different languages The DITTOS project Detecting insider threat through observation and simulation Difference in style matching was found - insiders less style matching than co-workers Could predict up to 90% accuracy who insiders were using this technique |
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Who suggested reality monitoring |
Johnson and Raye |
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What is reality monitoring |
Memories either have external source (real experiences) or internal source (imagination) Internal requires cognitive operations (making stuff up e.g. i thought that...) So detecting deception by looking at cognitive operations (it must have been...) and lack of surface details |
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Does reality monitoring work? |
Meta-analysis: overall predicts above chance (64-85%) H/ individual criteria differ across studies Depends where the lie comes from and what the lie is for: autobiograohical, episodic, scripted, asked to lie about certain event or generate lie, asked to create or mask an event |
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Is the cognitive load higher in masking an event or creating an event |
Masking |
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3 problems with fMRI studies for physiological cues to deception |
Lie down staying still while asked to do lots of things, impractical Whole brain thing, not localised part of the brain When people lie, mostly tell the truth - embedded lies |
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What does a polygraph assume |
Liars and truth tellers react differently |
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3 tests for lie detection with polygraph |
Comparison question test Guilty knowledge/concealed info test The directed lie test (DLT) |
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If a suspect is familiar with info in a question what 4 things occur |
An orienting reflex e.g. the breakthough effect (cocktail party, Cherry) Decline in heart rate Change in P300 brainwaves Increased electrodermal activity (sweat) |
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What is the comparison question test |
Detect response differences between neutral and direct accusatory questions (did you stab that man) |
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What is the guilty/concealed info test |
Based on the orienting reflex (e.g. break-through effect) Told to say no to every question Difference between liars and non-liars if they say no to something they know to be true |
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What is the direct lie test |
Compares responses when subjects told to lie deliberately or tell the truth |
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3 problems with polygraph |
Increased physiological rates/intensity caused by: factors other than fear of being caught out, faking to increase response to neutral qs Interpretation up to discretion of the examiner Not totally blind, examiner knows details/evidence False confessions- interviewees told they have failed |
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Evidence of pupil dilation for detecting deception |
Webb et al - innocent = increased pupil diameter to probable - lie qs, guilty did not show differential responding to the q types Cook et al - guilty = ^ pupil dilation |
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What is minimisation in interviewing |
Shifting blame from suspect to other person |
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What is maximization in interviewing |
Emphasis severity of offence and consequences if crime not admitted |
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What is the US way of interviewing |
The Reid technique, confession oriented, hostile |
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What has shown the rate of false confessions in US |
Innocence project- DNA available |
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In Kebbell and Hurren's interviews of sex offenders confessions, what % said being guilty was reason for confession |
32% |
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In Kebbell and Hurren's interviews of sex offenders confessions, what % said they had not decided prior to the interview whether to confess |
50% |
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In Kebbell and Hurren's interviews of sex offenders confessions, what 3 things did they say would increase the likelihood of confession |
Compassion Non-aggressive Present strong evidence |
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What did Baldwins (1992) analysis of 600 recordings of suspect interviews show |
2/3rds if interviewers did not challenge what the suspect was saying Police officers believed they were difficult and complex but actually short and polite |
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What was the principles of investigative interviewing called (created following miscarriages of justice) |
PEACE |
Acronym |
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What does PEACE stand for |
Preparation and planning Engage and explain Account, clarification and challenge Closure Evaluation |
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Interviewing changed from a what approach to a what approach |
Interrogation Information gathering approach |
I I G |
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What did Hartwig et al study on interviewing |
Use of evidence early/late |
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How did Hartwig et al study evidence use |
Mock theft paradigm 3 pieces of evidence: witness in store, assistant saw case moved, fingerprints |
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What were the results of the mock theft paradigm by Hartwig |
Late - 85% correct judgement Early - 56% correct judgement
If give evidence early on, they have the rest of the interview to construct lie |
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3 issues with Hartwig et als mock theft paradigm |
50% base rate Small amount of evidence (3) Interviewee did not have to construct own deception (told how to lie) |
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Who studied the tactical use of evidence |
Dando, Bull, Ormerod and Sandham |
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What was the method of Dando, Bull, Ormerod and Sandhams study of tactical use or evidence |
Immersive simulation game - dodgy builders Builders/terrorist assemble equipment, some to build Olympic venue, others to blow up, construct own plan - self-generated deception Unknown ratio liars/truthtellers |
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What did Dando, Bull, Ormerod and Sandhams tactical use of evience show |
Gradual use of evidence best accurate detection in both liars and truth tellers (Protects truth teller also) |
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What is the current aviation security screening |
Interviewing for 'suspicious signs' Documentation and journey Behaviour and appearance |
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What is a better aviation security screening |
Controlled Cognitive Engagement |
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What are the 3 stages of Controlled Cognitive Engagement |
1. Baselining - build rapport, establish a behavioural baseline (What are they like) 2. Info gathering - open unpredictable questions, commit passengers to version of truth 3. Veracity testing - test truth of the account using probe questioning, observe behaviour change |
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What are the cycles of CCE |
3 cycles, past present future = 6 worlds |
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Results on the effectiveness of CCE |
Jan - CCE = 63%, current method - 3% June - CCE = 74%, current method - 0% |
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What is the most common type of error in crime investigations |
That of decision making |
Quote by royal commission on criminal justice |
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Case study of decision making going wrong |
Murder of Rachel Manning Boyfriend Barry White wrongly convicted Source of problems: Failure to generate evidence linking, test and simulate Decisions not made wrongly, they were decisions not made - not thought about |
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6 biases that block decision making |
Confirmation bias Statistical bias Knowledge bias Metacognitive bias Social bias Strategy bias |
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What is the confirmation bias |
Tendency to seek evidence likely to confirm rather than falsify their current hypothesis |
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Who questioned if confirmation bias is right in police investigators |
Dando and Ormerod |
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What did Dando and Ormerod find in confirmation bias |
Police officers write down all possibilities in investigations Found more experienced officers created more hypotheses, more open minded |
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What is the mental models theory to decision making (Johnson-Laird) |
Individuals construct models of possibilities; the ease in which they can find these possibilities gives the success in reasoning |
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Example of mental models theory |
"The victim was attacked by 2 people. One was female. What is the absolute probability that the other was female?" Logical answer = 1/3rd |
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2 parts of statistical biases |
Conjunction (when people assume 2 events occuring together are more likely than each individual even occuring alone) Linda Bank teller feminist Base Rate (Tom W) |
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3 parts of knowledge bias |
Belief bias Lie/truth/guilt/innocence (gen pop tend to believe gen pop, police have opposite - believe people generally guilty) Framing |
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What are meta-cognivite biases |
Overconfidence/hindsight Police believe better at remembering faces Hindsight - believing everything would have been better if done properly |
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Social bias |
Fundamental attribution error Attribute own success to internal causes and failure of others to internal causes Attribute own failure to external causes and success of others to external causes |
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Another word for strategy bias and what it means |
Pseudo-diagnosticity What you chose to do next Peoples attempt to select evidence that should be diagnostic (is it A or is it B), end up choosing evidence that doesn't inform the decision at all |
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Experiment on strategy bias/pseudo-diagnosticity |
A pottery shard found in sea between two islands A or B, has a dappled red glaze and blue clay 85% of shards found on A have dappled red glaze, can find one more bit of info to help decide People often chose what % of A has blue clay (more info on current hypothesis) Most helpful is what % of B has dappled red glaze (can increase confidence in B) |
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What was the experiment on strategy bias (pseudo-diagnosticity) in investigations |
Benefit fraud Know 65% of previous cases where fraud proven, vehicles belonging to other people were registered at address Can know 2 other info: % cases where fraud proved in which a claimant shared a previous address with a potential partner % cases where claimant was shown to be innocent in which vehicles belonging to the other ppl were registered at claimants address |
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Findings on benefits fraud study on strategy bias |
In simple cases, investigators show pseudo-diagnosticity (chose wrong one) In complex cases, investigators show diagnosticity (chose right one) |
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What is ethnographic research |
Qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with a study's ppts in their real life environment |
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What did an ethnographic study on insurance fraud find |
3 natures of investigative expertise Formed v complex explanations based on v little data (made up stories) More rigorous of hypothesis testing (learn to overcome confirmation bias) Better at procedural decision-making (idea of what to do next) |
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Do experienced investigators search for additional info |
Yes but delayed, keep search space as small as possible and only expand when they have a specific reason to do so |
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Who created the cognitive interview |
Gieselman and Fisher |
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Who created the cognitive interview |
Gieselman and Fisher |
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Phases of the cognitive interview |
Establish rapport Explain aims Free recall Questioning (4 types) Vary retrieval mnemonic Investigative important questions Closure |
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Phases of the cognitive interview |
Establish rapport Explain aims Free recall Questioning (4 types) Vary retrieval mnemonic Investigative important questions Closure |
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What are the 4 main techniques (mnemonics) to the cognitive interview |
Report everything Mentally reinstate the context Reverse the order Change the perspective |
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4 types of questions |
Leading, closed, focused, open |
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2 theories on the impact of reversing temporal order |
Reducing negative impact of scripts (make memory better) Vs Temporal clustering central to context maintenance and retrieval (would make memory worse) |
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How was reversing temporal order tested |
Mock crime witness- video of mobile theft |
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What was found about reversing temporal order |
Reverse order both reduced recall and increased confabulations compared to free recall |
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What are the 3 theories of the effect of mental reinstatement of context |
Encoding specifity principle (Tulving) Vs Deficits in episodic memory in individuals wirh Autistic Spectrum Disorder (MRC demands language and concurrent processing abilities ASD find difficult) |
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What was the method of testing the success of mental reinstatement of context |
Unguided mental reinstatement of context Vs Sketch reinstatement of context |
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What was the results of mental reinstatement of context |
Autistic spectrum disorder worse in mental reinstatement, however not worse in sketch group (improved in sketch) |
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What was the results of mental reinstatement of context |
Autistic spectrum disorder worse in mental reinstatement, however not worse in sketch group (improved in sketch) |
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