Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
468 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
|
What is the recapulation theory? |
The idea that humans undergo the same embryotic development stages as other animals |
|
|
|
What are the 3 stages of prenatal development? |
1. The germinal period (from conception to implantation) 2. The period of the embryo (implantation to ~2 months) 3. The period of the fetus (2 months to birth) |
|
|
|
When does cell differentiation first occur |
2 weeks |
|
|
|
How do stem cells develop |
When fertilised cell splits and gets smaller and smaller until the same cell |
|
|
|
What is implanted into the uterine wall |
The blastocyst |
|
|
|
Period of the embryo at 3 weeks |
Part of tissue becoming obvious e.g. liver, brain, leg bud, eye, heart |
|
|
|
Period of the embryo at 7 weeks |
Individual toes and fingers now apparent, developing bulge in the gut |
|
|
|
Period of the foetus at 2 months |
Limbs now well-formed, brain expanded substantially |
|
|
|
Period of the foetus at 4 months |
Touch, hearing 250-500 Hz, movement. Ears and eyelids advanced |
|
|
|
Period of the foetus at 8 months |
Genitalia are now fully formed and clear |
|
|
|
What is having fewer/more than usual number of chromosomes known as? |
Aneuploidy |
|
|
|
How many chromosome pairs do most people have |
23 |
|
|
|
If an individual has one X chromosome (no extra X or Y), what is this called and do they appear male or female? |
Turners syndrome, female |
|
|
|
If an individual has XXY chromosomes, what is this called and do they appear male or female? |
Klinefelter syndrome, male |
|
|
|
What is mosaicism? What do they appear? |
Where some body cells contain XX, some contain XY chromosomes Male |
|
|
|
What is chimerium? What do they appear? |
Partial fusion of zygotes forming together to become one individual, some cells XX, some XY Male, female or ambiguous |
|
|
|
What are teratogens? |
Agents/factors which cause malformation of an embryo |
|
|
|
What occurred during the thalomide tragedy? |
Developed to tread headaches, insomnia and morning sickness for pregnant women Caused many children to be born with severely misshapen limbs Thalomide affected the limbs in during the short window of time they were vulnerable to this kind of chemical |
|
|
|
What does Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) create? |
Smaller brains Wide upper nose Absence of philtrum (vertical groove that stretches from upper lip to bottom of nose) Microcephaly - problems with vision and hearing |
|
|
|
What did DeCasper and Spence do to study Fetal learning? |
Read stories to babies 2x a day About 2.5 days after birth, 8 babies could hear the familiar story when sucking dummy faster whereas other 8 could hear familiar story when sucking dummy slower |
|
|
|
What did DeCasper and Spence find in their study on Fetal learning? |
Babies showed preference for familiar over novel stories |
|
|
|
Heppers findings on Fetal learning |
Babies had movement differences if learnt the "neighbours" theme tune vs didn't learn the "neighbours" theme tune |
|
|
|
Have the rates of insecure attachments increased or decreased? |
Increased |
|
|
|
Is human relating/affect implicit or explicity |
Implicit - can be confusing |
|
|
|
What are moments of meeting? |
Having an implicit connection with someone Intersubjectivity |
|
|
|
What does dyadic mean |
Two individuals maintaining a sociological significant relationship |
|
|
|
Do infants protest when interaction with caregiver is disrupted by a stranger? (Murray, 1998) |
No |
|
|
|
Is emotional or physical unavailability more distressing to infants 17 weeks of age (Field et al., 1986) |
Emotional |
|
|
|
What is synchrony? |
The degree to which physiobiological reactivity is related from moment to moment |
|
|
|
What are the 2 parallels of synchrony |
Verbal and nonverbal |
|
|
|
What does synchrony provide the basis for |
Physiological and emotional regulation |
|
|
|
How does maternal sensitivity to infant social cues organise infant physiology? |
Feldman - synchronisation of heart rate Calkins and hall - maternal touch can lower infants heart rate during arousal |
|
|
|
4 things synchrony predicts |
Child self-regulation Symbolic play and internal state talk Capacity for empathy at age 13 Pro-social behaviour |
|
|
|
Study on synchrony and helpfulness |
Bouncing either at the same time as experimenter (synchronous), or at different times (asynchronous)
Observes if infant spontaneous go to help experiment when she drops an object Synchrony increases helpfulness |
|
|
|
If a child A is more synchronous with child B, child B perceives child A as |
Closer and more similar to child B |
|
|
|
In the best functioning mother infant dyads, what % of the time are rhey in attuned states (Tronick and Beeghly) |
28-34% |
|
|
|
How long does it take to repair mistakes in face to face interactions in infants (Reck et al) |
3-5 seconds |
|
|
|
Infants of less responsive mothers exhibit which 2 behaviours during reunion in the still face recovery? |
Resistant or avoidant |
|
|
|
What effect on the brain does a longer latency to repair in the still face experiment have? (Müller) |
Higher cortisol reactivity |
|
|
|
Does the duration of positive social matches predict infant cortisol reactivity? |
No |
|
|
|
What did Coan et al find on stress with electric shocks |
If women hold their husbands hands, less activity in neural system of stress processing |
|
|
|
Over time amygdala developed connections with what cortex? |
Ventral prefrontal cortex |
|
|
|
As the amygdala-prefrontal connection is immature in children, what does this mean |
They have heightened vulnerability to environmental influences |
|
|
|
Do pictures of mother (opposed to a stranger) increase or decrease amygdala activity in chikdren? |
Decrease Dampening effect correlated with strength of parent-child relationship |
|
|
|
Do pictures of mother (opposed to a stranger) increase or decrease amygdala activity in adolescents? |
Increase |
|
|
|
What % of mothers get postpartum depression? |
13-20% |
|
|
|
What brain systems involved in paternal brain? |
Limbic, empathy network, oxytocin |
|
|
|
What brain systems involved in paternal brain? |
Limbic, empathy network, oxytocin |
|
|
|
What does maternal oxytocin predict |
Time spent with infant |
|
|
|
Touch of mother nipple in the 1st hour of life increased time mothers kept infants with them by how many minutes per day? |
100 |
|
|
|
Infant smile gives rise to what? |
Maternal dopaminergic reward-related activity-neural basis for proximity seeking |
|
|
|
When the infant cries, what's the difference in neural activity between depressed and non depressed mothers when their infant cries |
Healthy mothers reward systems become very active - ventral striatum activity increases
Depressed mothers reward systems do not respond to their own infant cry |
|
|
|
What are the differences in depressed, anxious and healthy mothers in sensitivity to happy faces |
Healthy most sensitive, then anxiety, then depression |
|
|
|
What attention is depression associated with? |
Self-focused attention |
|
|
|
According to the centre for epidemiological studies for depression scale, did more or less depressed mothers lower the water temperature in a bath? |
Less |
|
|
|
According to the centre for epidemiological studies for depression scale, do more or less depressed mothers giver cereal, water and juice in babies first few months of life? |
More |
|
|
|
According to the centre for epidemiological studies for depression scale, what were the 4 socio-developmental practices depressed mothers did less of? |
Shows books Played with infant Talk to infant Had more than 2 routines with infant |
|
|
|
Early interactions in first 3 months with infants of ppd mothers are characterised by what? |
More hostility, irritability Less engagement, smiling, touch Less vocal and visual communications Less enriched activities |
|
|
|
Does a PPD mother over stimulate or under stimulate infant |
Oscillates between both |
|
|
|
What % of children of depressed mothers become less active? |
41% |
|
|
|
In observations of mother infant interactions in depressed, anxiety and healthy mothers, what was found about the latency to synchrony in gaze and touch? |
Depressed - longest latency Anxiety - quickest latency |
How quickly does this behaviour first emerge? |
|
|
In observations of mother infant interactions in depressed, anxiety and healthy mothers, what was found about the duration of synchrony in gaze? |
Depression - shortest Anxiety - longest |
|
|
|
In observations of mother infant interactions in depressed, anxiety and healthy mothers, what was found about the duration of synchrony in touch? |
Healthy - shortest Anxiety - longest |
|
|
|
In observations of mother infant interactions in depressed, anxiety and healthy mothers, what was found about the frequency of touch? |
Depression reduced |
|
|
|
Which infants (those of depressed or anxious) show greater negative emotionality and highest cortisol |
Depressed |
|
|
|
What lag is it for depressed mothers to break mutual gaze |
1-2 seconds |
|
|
|
Children of depressed mothers at age 10 show greater... |
Amygdala volumes and cortisol secretion - high stress |
(2 things =) |
|
|
According to Gullone, in children between 4-19 year olds, what is the average number of fears per child |
2-5 |
|
|
|
What researcher asked children "What are you afraid of most?" |
Bauer 1976 |
|
|
|
Which fear did Bauer find increased from age 4 to age 12? |
Fear of injury/physical danger |
|
|
|
Which fears peak at age 4-6 according to Baeur? |
Monsters and ghosts Animals |
|
|
|
Which fears peak at age 6-8? |
Frightening dreams Bedtime fears |
|
|
|
Who created the fear survey schedule for children and when? |
Ollendick 1983 |
|
|
|
What is the fear survey schedule for children? |
80 item measure of children's fears in response to a range of specific stimuli/situations |
|
|
|
What were the 5 reliable factors of fear that the fear survey schedule for children created? |
Danger/death Failure/criticism The unknowns Animals Stress and medical factors |
|
|
|
What are the 3 limitations to the 5 factors given by the fear survey schedule for children |
Updated Limited to items on the scale Might not index frequency, instead the thought of how aversive the fears are |
|
|
|
What did Ollendick, King and Frary (1989) find most fears were related to? |
Top fears related to dangerous situations and physical harm |
Top fear for children 7-16 |
|
|
What did Ollendick, King and Frary (1989) find on gender effects? |
Girls reported more fears than boys |
Fear |
|
|
Which fear did Gullone and King (1999) find increased from age 7 to age 15? |
Stress/medical |
|
|
|
What are the 3 main moderators of childhood fears |
Gender Cultural Variation Socioeconomic effects |
|
|
|
What did Pierce and Kirkpatrick (1992) find on gender role stereotyping of fears |
Males fear ratings increased when thought experimenter was detecting lies through HR Women's didn't |
|
|
|
In the US, how do children from ethnic minorities differ from white children in displaying fears |
They display higher fear and anxiety |
|
|
|
Rank the amount of fears in nigeria, china, america and Australia according to Ollendick et al. |
Nigeria > china > america = australia |
|
|
|
Ollendick et al found that in which country girls do not have more fears than boys? |
Nigeria |
|
|
|
What did Ollendick find to be the age differences of fears in nigeria and china |
No age differences in nigeria Peak in anxiety in late childhood (10-14yrs) in China |
|
|
|
What's the idiosyncratic fear in China? |
Ghosts |
|
|
|
What's the idiosyncratic fear in US |
Looking foolish |
|
|
|
What's the idiosyncratic fear in Nigeria? |
Ocean |
|
|
|
What's the idiosyncratic fear in Australia? |
Guns |
|
|
|
Do individualistic or collectivist cultures fuel greater fear and why? |
Collectivist Emphasis on self-control, social inhibition and compliance with social norms |
|
|
|
Do high or low SES children report more fears? |
Low |
|
|
|
What are the fears of low SES children? |
Animals Strange people Abandonment by parents Death Violence Knives |
|
|
|
What are the fears of high SES children? |
Heights Ill health Rolar coasters Pets safety |
|
|
|
What is the predictable pattern of content in fears? |
Infants - environmental stimuli Age 4-8: ghosts, imaginary creatures and animals Age 10-12: social fears, self-injury |
|
|
|
Evidence that pattern of fear development maps onto age of onset of phobias |
Infancy - height/water phobia begins 7-9 - animal phobias begin Pre-adolescence - social fears begin |
|
|
|
What are physical fears? |
The unknown Animals Injury Danger and death Medical situations |
|
|
|
What social fears increase with age? |
Social evaluation Achievement evaluation |
|
|
|
What social fear decreases with age? |
Punishment |
|
|
|
What is the cognitive development explanation of fear development? |
Fear and anxiety originates from conceptualization of threat which depends on cognitive and physical abilities |
|
|
|
What did Muris, Merckelback, masters and van den brand find to support the cognitive development explanation of fear development? |
Increased age and cognitive maturation (measured by piaget's conservation task) leads to both ability to explain worry (which in turn leads to), and personal worry |
|
|
|
What are the 2 approaches to the assessment of psychopathologies? |
Clinical diagnostic approach - discrete categories defines on criteria proposed by experts (DSM-V e.g.) Empirical quantitative approach - symptoms assessed on a continuous scale, disorders the extreme ends of the distribution |
|
|
|
2 externalising psychopathologies |
Conduct problems, ADHD |
|
|
|
How prevalent are psychopathologies? |
10-25% |
|
|
|
What % of psychopathologies have onset before age 25? |
75% |
|
|
|
What does chronic mean? |
Don't go away on their own, often return |
|
|
|
What is the equation for phenotypic variation? |
P = h^2 + c^2 + e^2 P = A + C + E |
|
|
|
What component of phenotypic variation is h^2/A and what does it mean? |
Heritability: influences of genetic factors |
|
|
|
What component of phenotypic variation is c^2/C and what does it mean? |
Shared environment: any environmental influence that contribute to the similarity between co-twins |
|
|
|
What component of phenotypic variation is e^2/E and what does it mean? |
Non-shared environment: any aspect of the environmental influence that makes co-twins different from each other |
|
|
|
What is the equation for identical twin resemblance in terms of ACE |
100%A + C |
|
|
|
What is the equation of fraternal twin resemblance in terms of ACE |
50%A + C |
|
|
|
What is the equation for heritability (in terms of twin resemblance rMZ/rDZ) |
2(rMZ-rDZ) |
|
|
|
What is the equation for heritability (in terms of twin resemblance rMZ/rDZ) |
2(rMZ-rDZ) |
|
|
|
What is the equation for heritability (in terms of twin resemblance rMZ/rDZ) |
2(rMZ-rDZ) |
|
|
|
What is the equation for shared environment (C) |
rMZ - h^2 |
|
|
|
What is the equation for non-shared environment (in terms of twin resemblance rMZ/rDZ) |
1 - rMZ |
|
|
|
What is heterogeneity? |
Diversity |
|
|
|
What are callous-unemotional traits? |
Limited empathy Lack of guilt Shallow affect |
|
|
|
What difference was found in ACE in children with antisocial behaviour between those with and without callous-unemotional traits? |
Those with callous-unemotional traits had very high heritability and no C (shared) Those without had about 1/3rd of each ACE |
|
|
|
What is comorbidity? |
The co-occurence of 2 disabilities/disorders |
|
|
|
What is depression often comorbid with? |
Anxiety |
|
|
|
What is ADHD often comorbid with? |
Language problems, conduct problems |
|
|
|
What are reading disabilities often comorbid with? |
Mathematics disabilities |
|
|
|
What is the relation of genetic factors in anxiety and depression? |
Completely related, Those genetic factors that relate to depression are exactly the same genetic factors that relate to environmental factors |
|
|
|
What % of the DNA sequence is the same for everybody? |
99% |
|
|
|
What does it mean when you say psychopathologies are polygenic traits |
They are influenced by more than 1 polygenic traits |
|
|
|
How common is anxiety |
1 in 14 people |
1 in ? People |
|
|
Mean age of onset for anxiety |
11 |
|
|
|
How heritable is anxiety (%) |
30% (but varies on population studied) |
|
|
|
What scans are being used to identify genetic variants in anxiety |
Genome-wide association scans |
|
|
|
Does recent work suggest genetics or environment plays a greater role in anxiety? |
Environment |
|
|
|
What us a model for social anxiety disorder |
Etiological model of social anxiety disorder by Spence and Rapee |
|
|
|
What does "risk factors interact equifinality" mean for Social Anxiety disorders |
Different pathways and combinations of factors can result in SAD |
|
|
|
What does "risk factors interact multifinality" mean for Social Anxiety disorders |
Any 1 risk factor can lead to multiple outcomes, not just SAD |
|
|
|
What does a fearful temperament at age 2 elicit |
Overprotective parenting Social withdrawal 3 years later |
Parenting and future sociability |
|
|
What parenting style has the strongest relationship with anxiety |
Overcontrolling |
|
|
|
Do anxious children perform better, just as well, or worse on social tasks? |
Worse |
|
|
|
Who studied the impact of social anxiety on the way they are judged by peers |
Blote, Miers and Westenberg 2015 |
|
|
|
What 3 things did children have to rate high and low social anxiety speakers on in Blote, Miers and Westenberg (2015)? |
Attractiveness Rejection using Desire for future interaction scale (e.g. would you like to have this speaker sit next to you in class) Performance using Skills Rating Scale for Peers e.g. content, facial expression, body posture and movement, way of speaking |
|
|
|
What did Blote, Miers and Westenberg (2015) find on anxiety and peer judgements |
Highly anxious adolescents were more rejected and rates as less physically attractive and having lower social skills that their low socially anxious peers |
|
|
|
What 3 things did Storch et al., measure |
Overt and relational victimisation measured using Social Experience Questionnaire Social avoidance and distress measured using Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents Social anxiety symptoms measured using Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children |
Anxiety |
|
|
What did Storch et al., find on victimisation and anxiety symptoms 1 year later (3) |
Higher social phobia symptoms predicted higher SP symptoms a year later Relational but not overt victimization predicted increased SP symptoms a year later, but not to victimization scores No gender effects |
|
|
|
What was the sample of Storch et al? |
White middle class sample |
|
|
|
Other findings on gender and anxiety/victimization |
Relational more strongly linked to girls Overt more strongly linked to boys Ranta et al |
|
|
|
In Gren-Landell et al's study, what were the 5 parts of the juvenile victimisation questionnaire? |
Conventional crime Maltreatment Peer or sibling victimisation Sexual victimisation Witnessing victimisation |
|
|
|
In males, which victimisation was significantly different in SAD group vs non SAD group? (Gren-landell) |
Peer/sibling victimisation |
|
|
|
In females, which victimisation was significantly different in SAD group vs non SAD group? (Gren-landell) |
Maltreatment Sexual victimisation Peer/sibling victimisation |
|
|
|
Culture impacts what 3 things in anxiety? |
Expression of social anxiety Threshold of clinical diagnosis and prevalence Societal reactions and impact of withdrawn/reticent behaviour |
|
|
|
What is the underlying fear of social anxiety in japan? |
Feae of causing offence or harm to others due to bodily actions/appearance |
|
|
|
What is the reason for the difference between English and japans fear in social anxiety |
Collectivist vs individualist cultures |
|
|
|
Is the prevalence of social anxiety higher in Japan/Korea or the US? |
US |
|
|
|
3 findings Rapee found on shyness ratings between east asian and western cultures |
Outgoing characters rated more likeable by western cultures Western ppts rated prospects of shy characters as significantly poorer than east asians Also rated prospects of outgoing ppts as significantly better |
|
|
|
Difference between intentional and pre-intentional communication |
Intentional - denotative, about something Pre-intentional - expressive |
|
|
|
During first 2 months of life, whats are infants intentional communication? |
Shared alertness (reflexes) |
|
|
|
During 2-6m, what are infants intentional communication? |
Interpersonal engagement |
|
|
|
During 2-6m, what are infants intentional communication? |
Interpersonal engagement |
|
|
|
During 6+ months, what are infants intentional communication? |
Joint object involvement |
|
|
|
What is protoimperative? |
Pointing to request |
Pointing to ... |
|
|
What is protodeclarative? |
Pointing to comment |
Pointing to... |
|
|
What is social tool use? |
The use of a social agent to achieve a goal |
|
|
|
What are the 2 interpretations of protodeclaratives |
Lean and rich interpretation |
|
|
|
What is the lean interpretation of protodeclaratives? |
Goal is affective response from caregiver, reinforcer is emotional signal e.g. smile Distant object is used as a means to obtain response |
|
|
|
What is the rich interpretation to protodeclaratives? |
Goal is joint attention to distal object Reinforcer is successful joint attention Child is aware mother has a separate psychological perspective |
|
|
|
3 theoretical perspectives on pointing |
Nativist (maturational, motivational) Cognitive (computational, representational) Social Learning (operant) |
|
|
|
Who added to the nativist theory of pointing |
Butterworth |
|
|
|
What did Butterworth say about pointing? |
Biologically based and species specific Precursor to linguistic reference |
|
|
|
What did Butterworth say about pointing? |
Biologically based and species specific Precursor to linguistic reference |
|
|
|
How are chimps hands different to human hands |
Chimp thumbs as big as our little fingers, difficult to touch index and thumb and grasp small objects |
|
|
|
As babies develop, what grip increases and which reduces? |
Power grip reduces, precision grip increases |
|
|
|
What is Darwins principle of antithesis? |
Opposite body postures expressed opposite emotions |
|
|
|
What did Butterworth say about antithesis? |
Index finger point is antithesis of finger grip |
|
|
|
3 critiques of the nativist view to pointing |
Depends on rearing history - language-trained apes point with index fingers Pointing with whole hand is widespread in humans also Despite hand anatomy, no physical impediment to pointing with index finger by chimps |
|
|
|
3 critiques of the nativist view to pointing |
Depends on rearing history - language-trained apes point with index fingers Pointing with whole hand is widespread in humans also Despite hand anatomy, no physical impediment to pointing with index finger by chimps |
|
|
|
According to the cognitive/representational view, pointing and gaze monitoring are the clearest piece of evidence for what |
Shared attention modules functioning |
SAM functioning |
|
|
Which type of protodeclaratives interpretation is the cognitive/representative view of pointing |
Rich interpretation |
|
|
|
What did Liszkowski et al find? |
In joint attention group (when experimenter head turns and shows positive emotion), infants do not repeat point - satisfied with experimenters response, unlike in just the face group (when no head turn, but positive emotion), or the event or ignore conditions (no positive emotion) |
Evidence for JA being the goal |
|
|
What did moore add to the leaner interpretations of declaratives? |
Infant may understand point will lead to head turn and an interesting subsequent response from adult |
The head turn point findings consistent with both learning and representational accounts |
|
|
Experiment arrangement supporting the learning perspective of pointing |
|
|
|
|
Evidence for the lean interpretation of pointing |
When baby first notices the mother looking at what it has pointed to, has a neutral affective tone. Mother smiling at child elicits happy affective tone |
|
|
|
When do children start creating sentences |
Around 2 years |
|
|
|
What are pragmatics? |
Conventions, social rules and cues e.g. turn taking, following pointing |
|
|
|
What are pragmatics? |
Conventions, social rules and cues e.g. turn taking, following pointing |
|
|
|
What is the Nativist argument to language development |
Language too complex to be learned so easily and quickly by unsophisticated children |
|
|
|
What is Chomskys view on language development |
Language Acquisition Device Module in brain just for learning language Starts out with necessary parameters and your native language tunes them over development |
Nativist argument |
|
|
Evidence against the behaviourist argument of language development |
Poverty of the stimulus - come up with things never heard e.g. sound glasses Negative evidence - no examples of what is wrong (parents often don't correct things like breaked-broke) |
|
|
|
What is Bates interactionist argument for language acquisition |
Basic perceptual and learning abilities are moulded by culture and society to become language specific |
|
|
|
Who studied high amplitude sucking (HAS) for recognising speech sounds |
DeCasper and Fifer |
|
|
|
What did DeCasper and Fifer find? |
Infants had a preference for own mothers voice |
|
|
|
What did DeCasper and Spence find? |
Infants prefer familiar story (if learnt prenatally) |
|
|
|
Did DeCasper and Spence find infants who heard the story prenatally prefered hearing their mother over another mother read it? |
No preference |
|
|
|
Did DeCasper and Spence find infants who heard didn't the story prenatally prefered hearing their mother over another mother read it? |
Own mother |
|
|
|
What is categorical perception? |
Perception if distinct categories when there is a gradual change in a variable along a continuum |
|
|
|
How can childrens categorical perception be studied (sound) |
Anticipatory head turn when sounds change phonetically |
|
|
|
What age do infants only retain contrasts used in their own language (lose those that aren't used) |
1 year |
|
|
|
What are the 3 ways to segment the speech stream according to Saffran et al? |
Prosody (changes in pitch) Pauses (in between words) Correlations i.e. statistical regularities |
|
|
|
What did Saffran et al study? |
Can infants pick up on statistical regularities? |
|
|
|
What did Saffran et al study? |
Can infants pick up on statistical regularities? |
|
|
|
What are statistical regularities of speech? |
The probability (frequency) of sounds that span a word-boundary is lower than the frequency of sounds within a word |
|
|
|
How did Saffran et al., study statistical regularities? |
Familiarised infant's to 2 minutes of speech stream with 3 repeating nonsense words Bidaku Padoti Golabu Tested infant preference for words and part words (e.g. dakupa) |
|
|
|
What words did infants prefer in Saffran et als study? Why? |
Part words Prefer familiar words until process them, then prefer novel things |
|
|
|
What are the characteristics of Infant Directed Speech |
Highly grammatical Simple structure Exaggerated Slower rate Vary pitch and loudness Short sentences, simple words, lots of repetition |
|
|
|
Who studied whether children use cues like Joint Attention in language acquisition? |
Balwin 1991 |
|
|
|
How did Balwin study Joint Attention cues to language? |
2 novel toys, 1 in view, 1 in bucket When child focus on visible toy, experimenter labels either the visible toy (follow-in condition) or the bucket toy (mis-match condition) Repeated 4 times Toys in neutral located Children asked to get the toma |
|
|
|
What did Baldwin find on joint attention to language acquisition? |
Children in follow-in condition easily learned words Children in mis-match condition: more labelling errors, look at experimenter more |
|
|
|
How long do children remember words learnt from mutual exclusivity? |
Mixed results, suggested up to 5 minutes |
|
|
|
What is the ability to quickly link a novel object to a novel name, typically by applying known info |
Fast mapping |
|
|
|
Who suggested fast mapping? |
Carey, 1978 |
|
|
|
How did Carey study fast mapping? |
"Bring me the chromium tray, not the blue one, the chromium one" One week later, "which colour is the chromium one" |
|
|
|
What did Carey find in her experiment on fast mapping |
13/14 brought the olive green tray 9/13 chose green or olive green |
Colour trays ?/? Chose the chromoum tray ?/? Picked green or olive green |
|
|
Issue with fast mapping study |
Few competitors of colour Has been shown number of competitors has an effect on mutual exclusivity |
|
|
|
Does having more illustrations increase or decrease number of words children learn |
Decrease |
|
|
|
What is the shape bias? |
Tendency to name things on the basis of shape |
|
|
|
Who studied shape bias? |
Samuelson |
|
|
|
How did Samuelson study shape bias |
Taught children 12 real nouns, either shape training (e.g. bucket, pear) or material training (e.g. lotion, jell-o) Shape matching task |
|
|
|
What did Samuelson find in shape bias |
Shape bias successful from really young, not material nouns Teaching shape nouns also allowed for developing of precocious shape bias and encouraged vocabulary learning, 1 months after study |
|
|
|
What is syntax |
How words go together in a sentence |
|
|
|
How do children begin showing signs for syntax? |
Telegraphic speech |
Simple sentences |
|
|
What is a study on morphology learning in children |
The wug test |
|
|
|
Pattern children learn past tense morphology |
U shaped trend First, correctly conjugate irregular verbs Then over-regularize irregular verbs (go = goed) Finally, return to correct usage |
|
|
|
Are individual differences or cultural differences in mathematical ability bigger? |
Individual differences |
|
|
|
Is within schools or between schools differences in mathematical ability bigger? |
Within schools |
|
|
|
What % variance in mathematical ability between people? |
90% |
|
|
|
2 nature nurture designs |
Twin Adoption |
|
|
|
2 twin designs |
MZ vs DZ Twins reared apart vs together |
|
|
|
2 adoption designs |
Biological and adoptive parents and adoptees Adopted vs non-adopted families |
|
|
|
Which is more heritable in primary school intelligence or literacy and numeracy |
Literacy and numeracy skills |
|
|
|
Across the life course, do the correlations between DZ twins and MZ twins ability for verbal and spatial abilities change or stay the same? |
|
|
|
|
How does the heritability of IQ change across the life course? (% ×2) |
Increases from about 40% in childhood to about 80% in later adulthood |
|
|
|
The polygenic hypothesis is called what? |
Quantitative loci (QTL) hypothesis |
|
|
|
Other hypothesis to the Quantitative loci (QTL) hypothesis |
One gene, One disorder hypothesis |
OGOD |
|
|
Who found evidence of positive correlations across abilities in schools? |
Spearman (1904) |
|
|
|
What did spearman create to analyse the pattern within g (general cognitive ability) |
Factor analysis |
|
|
|
What 2 types of intelligence did Cattell study? |
Fluid and crystalised |
|
|
|
What is fluid intelligence? |
Basic reasoning ability that can be applied to a wide range of problems |
|
|
|
What is crystallised intelligence? |
Factual knowledge about the world (often culturally specific) |
|
|
|
Is fluid intelligence more heritable or environmental? |
Highly heritable |
|
|
|
What is the investment theory on crystallised intelligence? |
Crystallised ability develops through investing fluid ability in specific learning experiences |
|
|
|
What is Carrolls theory to intelligence? |
3 stratum theory |
3 |
|
|
The 3 stratums in Carrolls theory |
Stratum 1 - narrow ability Stratum 2 - broad ability Stratum 3 - g |
|
|
|
What stratum would fluid intelligence go into in Carrolls theory? |
2. Broad abilities |
|
|
|
How to test intelligence |
Based on Carrolls 3 stratum framework - multiple broad abilities tests to give overall score (g) |
|
|
|
How to test intelligence |
Based on Carrolls 3 stratum framework - multiple broad abilities tests to give overall score (g) |
|
|
|
What's the name of the standardised general intelligence score so that its differential between ages |
Intelligence Quotient |
IQ |
|
|
What is the equation for IQ |
IQ = mental age (raw score)/chronical age (expected raw score from population) × 100 |
|
|
|
Internal validity concerns with IQ tests |
Culturally biased
Rely on representative populations, but may change over time
Are we training children to perform better at IQ tests?
IQ tests themselves are tricky to perform, validity/bias issues |
4 things |
|
|
Ethical issues with IQ tests |
Potential for error Self-concept Prejudice between groups in IQ scores |
3 things |
|
|
Do adoptive families report higher, the same as, or lower correlations between HOME and IQ scores/score achievement than non-adoptive families |
Lower |
|
|
|
When disregarding homes lacking in intellectual stimulation, are non-shared environments within family variations or between family variations larger |
Within family |
|
|
|
Does schooling have an effect on intelligence test performance |
Yes |
|
|
|
Who studied the influence of schooling in IQ |
Cahan and Cohen |
|
|
|
What did Cahan and Cohen find on schooling and IQ? |
Increasing in age group has a significant effect on IQ, despite the age group being very similar |
|
|
|
What is the Flynn effect in intelligence |
A rise in 3 pts per year in IQ scores for a society, across the general population |
|
|
|
In equal societies such as finland, how is IQ changing? |
Low SES children having a higher gain of IQ (high SES staying much more equal) |
|
|
|
According to Piaget, what does morality develop from (5-10 yrs) and into (10+ years)? |
Heteronomous morality - morality of constraint Autonomous morality - morality of co-operation |
|
|
|
How does Piaget evaluate children's judgements about moral dilemmas |
Intention vs outcome Boy accidentally breaking 15 cups by opening door vs boy breaking 1 cup while being naughty |
|
|
|
Did Kohlberg or Piaget focus more on judgement (rather than process to get to judgement) in ethical decisions? |
Piaget |
|
|
|
What are Kohlbergs 3 levels of the 6 stages of moral development? |
Preconventional Conventional Postconventional |
|
|
|
What are Kohlbergs 3 levels of the 6 stages of moral development? |
Preconventional Conventional Postconventional |
|
|
|
What are kolbergs 6 stages of moral development? |
1. Punishment 2. Instrumental 3. Good boy/good girl 4. Social order 5. Social contract 6. Ethical principle |
|
|
|
What did Gilligan suggest about gender differences in morality? |
Women - care, centring around understanding responsibility and relationship Men - fairness, understand rights and rules Womens lives different than mens |
|
|
|
Does research show gender bias in morality |
No |
|
|
|
Who studied morality across dif cultures? |
Miller and Bersoff |
|
|
|
What did Miller and Bersoff find about morality across cultures? |
Indians resolved conflict in favour of an interpersonal alternative 84% of the time Amercians favoured interpersonal in 39% of cases (chosing social justice) |
|
|
|
Difference between moral and social-conventional violations |
Moral: disrupting others rights and therefore their welfare Social-conventional: disrupt social norms, leading to disrupted social orsee and social attention/ridicule |
|
|
|
Do children understand morality without social conventions e.g. answer to "what if there was no rule about hitting, would it be OK to hit?" |
Yes, they understand No not ok |
|
|
|
What did Siegal and Storey find about preschool experience and normality |
Children that had spent longer time in preschool had better differentiation between moral and social-conventional rules |
|
|
|
Banjeree, Bennett and Luke found children give what 4 reasons for giving apologies/excuses |
Avoid punishment Promote positive relationships Look after others' feelings Defend/improve social evaluation of self |
|
|
|
Who proposed the gender similarities hypothesis? |
Janet Hyde 2005 |
|
|
|
What is the difference in temperament between boys and girls? |
Boys a bit more active |
|
|
|
What is the difference in IQ in boys and girls |
Practically identical |
|
|
|
What is the difference in IQ in boys and girls |
Practically identical |
|
|
|
What skills are girls better than boys? |
Verbal skills |
|
|
|
What skills are boys better at than girls |
Spatial skills |
|
|
|
What gender outperforms than on GCSE? |
Girls |
|
|
|
Which is the 1 subject girls and boys do equally well on at GCSEs? |
Maths |
|
|
|
What are the 3 social differences between girls and boys? |
Girls are more compliant Better able to resist temptation Show empathy and sympathy |
|
|
|
Who suggested an evolutionary explanation of gender differences? |
Buss |
|
|
|
What is it called when girls are prenatally exposed to excess androgens? |
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) |
|
|
|
What does congenital adrenal hyperplasia lead to? |
Children playing in more masculine ways |
|
|
|
Is heritability higher for sex-typed behaviour in girls or boys? |
Girls |
|
|
|
Who conducted the twin study on childrens sex typed behaviour |
Lervolino et al |
|
|
|
Who conducted the twin study on childrens sex typed behaviour |
Lervolino et al |
|
|
|
Is shared environment higher in sex typed behaviour for boys or girls |
Boys |
|
|
|
Who suggested the social learning theory to gender development |
Mischel |
|
|
|
What did Langlois and Downs suggest about the SLT of gender development? |
Fathers more positive to same-sex behaviour and critical of other-sex behaviour |
|
|
|
An issue with SLT by Huston |
Children's gender role behaviour is not strongly correlated with their parents behaviour |
|
|
|
Who suggested the social cognitive theory to gender? |
Bussey and Bandura |
|
|
|
What are the 3 key influences to the social cognitive theory? |
Modelling in immediate environment Enactive experience (vicarious leaening) Direct tuition |
|
|
|
What are the 2 socialization theories to gender development |
SLT Social Cognitive Theory |
|
|
|
2 issues with socialization theories |
Not supported by research
Doesn't account for developmental changes in gender-stereotyped beliefs - adevelopmental |
|
|
|
2 cognitive theories to the development of gender |
Cognitive developmental theory Cognitive schema theory |
|
|
|
Who suggested the cognitive development theory to gender? |
Kohlberg |
|
|
|
What is the main suggestion of cognitive development theory by Kohlberg? |
Understanding of gender develops within a framework of general cognitive development and initiates gender development |
|
|
|
Issue of Kohlbergs theory as proposed by Weinraub et al |
Children prefer same-sex toys before they have a full understanding of gender |
|
|
|
What are Slaby and Frey (1976)'s 3 stages of Gender Understanding |
1. Gender identity - label self 2. Gender stability - understand stable over time 3. Gender constancy - understand permanence of sex |
Names and meanings |
|
|
What are the ages children develop gender identity, stability and constancy? |
2.5 years 3.5 years 6 years |
|
|
|
Who suggested the gender schema theory? |
Martin and Halverson |
|
|
|
Which of Slably and Freys stages of gender has central role in the gender schema theory? |
Gender identity |
|
|
|
What is an issue with gender schema theory |
Doesnt explain why boys and girls gender-typed preferences differ in flexibility |
|
|
|
What is an issue with the cognitive theories as proposed by Perry, White and Perry? |
A relationship between gender stereotypes and gender typed behaviour is not found Gender stereotyped toy preference found 6 months before children showed much knowledge of gender stereotypes |
|
|
|
At what age do gender-based preferences emerge? |
3 years |
|
|
|
At what age do children avoid other-sex toys? |
4-5 |
|
|
|
What did Levy et al find on gender preference? |
Both boys and girls viewed boys with feminine preferences more negatively than girls with masculine preferences |
|
|
|
What is gender boundary maintenance? |
Process by which gender boundaries are maintained e.g. teasing outside boundaries |
|
|
|
At what age is there a ceiling level on stereotypes about activities and occupations |
7 years |
Children say anyone can do any of the things |
|
|
What did Wells et al find on how parents treat babies differently |
Smile more at Beth and more likely to give her a doll than Adam, same 6m old baby |
|
|
|
What did Rubin, Provenano and Luria find on how new parents (particularly fathers) descrive their babies? |
Stereotypically, girls more delicate, finer features, boys heavier, stronger, larger featured |
|
|
|
What activities did Fagot find parents en/discouraged girls and boys |
Girls - dance, play with dolls, discouraged from climbing running Boys - trucks, building blocks, discouraged dolls or feminine activities |
|
|
|
Who found no evidence of sex differences for parental influence |
Maccoby and Jacklin |
|
|
|
Who found no reliable differences of parental influence on sex apart from the activities parents encoueaged |
Lytton and Romney |
|
|
|
What is Eccles' expectancy value theory? |
Parent's gender role beliefs affect judgements made about childrens competence in activities These affect parents expectations about children's future performance These expectations affect types of opportunities parents then give their children |
|
|
|
According to the Michigan study of Childhood and Beyond, what were the differences in parents ratings if sons and daughters competence and interests |
Daughters more competent and interested in English than sport (sons opposite) Daughters more talented in instrumental music |
|
|
|
What did Yee and Eccles find on gendered attribution patterns |
Parents of boys rated natural talent as more important reason for maths success than effort Parents of girls - effort important reason |
|
|
|
What did Stevenson and Black find on lone mother families and stereotyping |
Preschools less stereotyped but older boys more stereotyped |
|
|
|
What did Stevens, Golombok, Beveridge and ALSPAC study team find on lone mother families and stereotyping? |
No difference in gender-role behaviour between lone-mother families with/without contact, and 2 parent families |
|
|
|
Reasons for differences between Stevenson and Black's findings and Stevens, Golombok, Beveridge and ALSPAC study team findings |
1988 vs 2002 Later is british based |
|
|
|
What did Golombok, Hines and Johnston find on the role of siblings on gender-typed behaviour |
Boys with older brothers and girls with older sisters = more sex-typed Having an older brother associated with more masculinity and less feminity for both boys and girls Boys with older sister - more feminite but not less masc Girls with older sister - less masculine but not more feminine |
|
|
|
What did McHale, Updegraff, Helmes-Erikson and Crouter find on parental and sibling influence to gender |
More parental influence on 1st borns 1st borns not influenced by 2nd borns 2nd borns more influenced by 1st birns than parents |
|
|
|
What 4 dimensions of parenting did Baumrind assess? |
Control Nurturance Clarity of communication Maturity demands |
CNCM |
|
|
What are Baumrind's 3 parenting styles |
Authoritative - high responsiveness and high demandingness Permissive - high responsiveness and low demandingness Authoritarian - low responsiveness and high demandingness |
Names and descriptions |
|
|
On Baumrinds parenting style model, who added a term for low responsiveness and low demandingness and what is that term? |
Maccoby and Martin Neglectful |
|
|
|
What did Baumrind find on children of authoritarian parents? |
Display low levels of independence and social responsibility |
|
|
|
What did Baumrind find on children of passive parents? |
Aimless, immature, lack impulsive control and self-reliance, as well as lacking in independence and social responsibility |
|
|
|
What did Baumrind find on children of Authoritative parents? |
Children most competent: self-reliant, socially responsible, keen to achieve, cooperative |
|
|
|
What are children from rejecting-neglecting parents like? |
Low levels of cognitive and social competence |
|
|
|
What did Dornbush et al., study parenting style's effect on? |
Adolescent school performance |
|
|
|
In Dornbush et als study, which parenting style leads to the best grade in their adolescence |
Authoritative |
|
|
|
In Dornbush et als study, what parenting styles are risk factors for low achievement |
Authoritarian and Permissive |
|
|
|
Evidence that children have effects on how parents treat children |
More attractive infants elicit more affectionate and playful interactions from their mothers |
|
|
|
Who studied the bidirectionality of conduct problems and negative parenting? |
Oliver 2015 |
|
|
|
Who created the systems theory? (Family systems theory e.g.) |
Minuchin 1985 |
|
|
|
What are the 4 main parts of the system theory created by Minuchin |
Wholeness: whole > sum of its parts
Integrity of subsystems: can be studied on own
Circularity of influence: all components mutually interdependent, change in 1 = implications for all
Stability and change: open to outside influence |
WICS |
|
|
According to Bowlby, what are the roles of fathers? |
Provide for wives to enable them to devote themselves unrestrictedly to the care of the infant Also provide love and companionship, supporting emotionally and help her maintain harmonious contented mood |
|
|
|
What fraction of mothers work who have a youngest child of 3/4 yrs old |
About 2/3rd |
|
|
|
What % of fathers who have a child aged 3/4 work? |
About 90% |
|
|
|
What did Pleck find as a difference between mothers and fathers |
Involvement, fathers engagement significantly less (43.5% vs mothers) Accessibility less (65.6%) |
|
|
|
Which is increasing quicker, paternal involvement or maternal employment? |
Maternal employment |
|
|
|
Which is increasing quicker, paternal involvement or maternal employment? |
Maternal employment |
|
|
|
What is the evidence of maternal beliefs and attitude determining parental behaviour |
Triadic interactions Mother gatekeeping, think they know better |
|
|
|
Whos working hours (mothers or fathers) determines paternal involvement |
Mothers (mother absense leads to more paternal involvement) |
|
|
|
When are fathers involvement negative |
If fathers highly anti-sociable/criminal records/abuse |
|
|
|
Did Lamb find that preschool children with highly involved dads show less or more gender role stereotyping? |
Less |
|
|
|
When children were asked whether parental differential treatment was fair, what % said it was justified? |
75% |
|
|
|
Who studied Parental Differential Treatment |
Kowal and Kramer 1997 |
|
|
|
If children viewed parental differential treatment as fear, what did this effect? |
Ameliorated the negatige effects |
|
|
|
Assessments of the sibling relationship during preschool predicts what? |
Early adolescent adjustment |
|
|
|
What did Patterson find on sibling relationships? |
Siblings can reward one another's noxious behaviours setting off coercive, chain of behaviour |
|
|
|
What was the mean age of puberty in norway in 1840 and today |
Was 17, now 13 |
|
|
|
What is navel gazing |
Self-indulgent or excessive contemplation of oneself or a single issue, at the expense of a wider view |
|
|
|
What is the cause for the decline in age of puberty? |
Increased standard of living, particularly nutrition, health, heredity and body mass |
|
|
|
What is the cause for the decline in age of puberty? |
Increased standard of living, particularly nutrition, health, heredity and body mass |
|
|
|
How do we know there is a genetic role in the age of puberty |
MZ twins start period within same month DZ twins start period within same year |
|
|
|
How much earlier do girls begin puberty? |
2-3 years |
|
|
|
Whats the change in body image satisfaction during puberty? |
Least satisfied |
|
|
|
What are the mood changes in girls during puberty |
Increased anger and depression |
|
|
|
What are the mood changes in boys during puberty? |
Increased anger and irritability |
|
|
|
What are the 3 hypothesis on pubertal timing |
Stressful change hypothesis Off-time hypothesis Early-timing hypothesie |
|
|
|
What is the stressful change hypothesis to pubertal timing |
Doesn't matter when puberty happens, the stress of it will cause distress during the period of most rapid change |
|
|
|
What is the off time hypothesis to pubertal timing? |
Pubertal events encountered earlier or later than expected will cause additional stress |
|
|
|
What is the early-timing hypothesis to pubertal timing |
Early maturation may cause inappropriate maturity demands from others, causing distress |
|
|
|
Who tested the hypothesis of pubertal timing |
Caspi and Moffitt |
|
|
|
What did Caspi and Moffitt find about pubertal timing? |
Results suggested early timing hypothesis sucessful |
|
|
|
What does maturing early in girls lead to? |
Less sociability Poorer body image Lower self-esteem More likely to engage in risky behaviours Reach lower levels of educational attainment |
5 things |
|
|
Whats does maturing early in boys lead to? |
Gain in self-esteem More popular Likely to be leaders Good-natured Hold cognitive advantage Be more cautious Bound to rules and routines |
7 things |
|
|
What does late maturing in boys lead to? |
More dependency Insecure Aggressive More likely to rebel against parents |
|
|
|
What does late maturing in boys lead to? |
More dependency Insecure Aggressive More likely to rebel against parents |
|
|
|
What are the 2 competing theories to how the parent-child relationship changes over adolescents |
Adolescent individuality from parents leads to independence Difference in relationship lead to independence with continued connectedness |
|
|
|
What did Larson et al do in study about adolescence? |
Got them to carry pagers and provide reports at random times 7/8 times per day |
|
|
|
What did Larson find? |
1 to 1 time with both mum and dad doesn't decline over age Time spent with sibling, as a family group and with extended family reduced over age No correlation with time spent with family members and qualuty of family relationships Mediators of the decline in fam time were external to fam e.g. job |
Adolescence carry pagers 4 things |
|
|
Who studied is parenting has changed |
Gardiner et al |
|
|
|
What did gardener find in parental change |
Increase in monitoring children |
|
|
|
What did James suggest about self-esteem in adolescence |
High self-esteem doesn't come from just good performance, comes from good performance in domains deemed important |
|
|
|
What domain has the highest correlation with self-esteem |
Physical appearance |
|
|
|
What is Cooley's theoretical approach to self esteem |
How you think other people view you determines self-esteem, looking glass self opinions of others and large determinant of self esteem |
|
|
|
How does Hartler suggest the self-concept develops |
Concrete to abstract self portraits Social comparison to internalized standards Shift towards differentiation of self into multiple domains Final task: integrate multiple selves into a unified self concept |
4 stages |
|
|
Who proposed the 8 stages with specific crises to resolve throughout the life course |
Erik Erikson |
|
|
|
What crisis did Erik Erikson propose for Adolescents |
Identity defined as "confidence in one's inner continuity amid change" |
And its definition pls |
|
|
What are marcia's 4 identity statuses? |
Achievement Foreclosure Moratorium Diffusion |
|
|
|
What is moratorium in garcias identity statuses |
The actice period of exploration when individuals examine alternatives in an attempt to arrive at a choice |
|
|
|
What is foreclosure in Marcia's identity statuses |
Adopting the identity prescribed by parents or other authority firfures without ever exploring options or experiencing an identity crisis |
|
|
|
What is identity diffusion in Marcia's identity statuses? |
Little sense of commitment and are not actively seeking to make decisions |
|
|
|
What did Archer suggest about Marcia's identity statuses |
MAMA cycle common Moratorium to achievement ... |
|
|
|
Which of marcias statuses does a parenting style of low warmth with open communications lead to? |
Diffusion |
|
|
|
What is the trend in identity development across time |
Trend towards later identity |
|
|
|
Eriksons identity stage (6) is in which of Freuds stages? |
Genital |
|
|
|
Later initiation of sex occurs in girls with a better or worse relationship with their parents |
Better |
|
|
|
Later initiation of sex occurs in boys with a better/worse relationship with parents? |
Relationship has no effect |
|
|
|
How can parents relationship play a role the child initiation of sex? |
Earliee sexual activity may be linked to divorce during puberty, living in a 1 parent family if the parent is dating |
|
|
|
What is it called when teens overestimate the level of peer sexual activity? |
False consensus effect |
|
|
|
What is the effect of the media on sexual activity in teens |
Earlier sexual activity if exposed to more sexual content and percieve more media support for adolescent sex |
|
|
|
What does frequent exposure to sexually explicit internet material |
Lower satisfaction with adolescent sex lives - particularly for less sexually experiences |
|
|
|
How does sexual media influence perception of sex and norms |
More positive attitudes to sex among adolescents who use it Think their peers have positive attitudes to such media |
|
|
|
Benefit of the internet for adolescent sexual activity |
Safe space - safely rehearsing coming out |
|
|
|
What are young peoples views on definition of sex |
Less likely to think that oral sex is sex |
|
|
|
In Wells and Twenge's meta analysis, what changes in sexual attitudes and behaviours were found? |
Only men increased permissive attitudes Men and women more sexually active and earlier sex Only women more oral sex |
|
|
|
Do men or women have stronger attitude-behaviour links |
Women |
|
|
|
What was mens behaviour/attitude pattern? (In meta-analysis) |
Behaviour predicted by earlier attitudes |
|
|
|
What was womens behaviour/attitude pattern? (In meta-analysis) |
Reciprocal attitude behaviour links |
|
|
|
What is the pattern of regret with timing of first sexual encounters |
More likely to wish waited longer before sex if girls and if first intercourse younger - age 13/14 |
|
|
|
2 other influences of regret of timing of sex (other than age/sex) |
Family background -less well off more likely to regret Having a partner 2 or more years older than them are more likely to regret |
|
|
|
Which countries have the highest teenage birth rates? |
English-speaking countries |
|
|
|
What 6 things predicts teenage motherhood? |
Socioeconomic disadvantage Being born to a teenage mum Expectation of being a teenage parent Low educational expectations Poorer (or no) school sex education Poorer communication with parents/guardians |
|
|
|
How is peer education useful/not useful in sex ed vs teacher ed |
Rated more favourable by teens However no better at influencing sex behaviours or outcomes such as unintended pregnancies |
|
|
|
1 in ? Children reported being bullied in last school term |
4 |
|
|
|
What did Tippett et al find on demographic bullying |
Pakistan and Carribean girls were more likely to have bullied others compared to white girls |
|
|
|
What did Modeckis meta-analysis show on rates of reporting methods |
Traditional 35%Cyber 15% |
Traditional % Cyber % |
|
|
What did Modecki's meta-analysis show moderated rates of reporting |
Offline vs online Whether a definition and/or examples provided Whether term "bully" or "teased" used |
3 influences |
|
|
4 types of bullying |
Physical Verbal Social (relational) Cyber |
|
|
|
3 ways bullying is expressed |
direct/indirect/bias (bias - race hate crime, homophobia) |
|
|
|
3 characteristics of bullying in consensus of its definition |
Intentional/unprovoked Persistent Involves an imbalance of power |
|
|
|
Which type of aggression is hard to observe |
Proactive (cold and calculated) rather than reactive |
|
|
|
What is the issue with self-report of bullying |
Prone to social desirability bias and paranoids/deniers |
|
|
|
What is the halo effect |
Group bias seeing 1 person as an angel, massively exaggerating the view of that persons traits |
|
|
|
Acxording to a twin study, genetic effects account for what % of variance in proactive aggression |
41% |
I.e. the person who is the bully |
|
|
Proactive aggression may indicate what personality characteristics |
Psychopathic Machiavellian |
|
|
|
What did Vitaro et al find about parenting styles and relationships |
Bullies often experience lax parenting but not necessarily poor family relationships |
|
|
|
What did Spriggs et al suggest about modelling and bullying |
Bullying product of modelling where use of aggression to achieve goals is deemed acceptable |
|
|
|
Children with which attachments are more inclined towards submissive behaviours? |
Anxious resistant |
|
|
|
Boys with what type of mothers are more prone to victimisation? |
Overprotective and controlling |
|
|
|
Which girls experience more harrassment |
Girls who consider themselves rejected by their mother |
|
|
|
Children of which parenting style more likely to become bully victims? |
Inconsistent, punitive and/or authoritarian |
|
|
|
What are bullies self-esteem and self-worth |
Inflated self-esteem (consequence of their status) Low self-worth |
|
|
|
What is suggested from the social information processing model (Crick and Dodge) to bullying? |
Bullies and victims experience biases throughout their social cognitive processes |
|
|
|
Who studied are bullies oafs or intellectuals? |
Sutton, Smith and Swettenham 1999 |
Sss |
|
|
What did sutton find on are bullies oafs or intellectuals? |
Bullys have highest cognitive and emotional scores |
|
|
|
Are interventions to bullying successful? |
Few have been properly empirically evaluated |
|
|
|
What is the difficulty in intervention by social skills training for the victim? |
Victimisation |
|
|
|
Whats the most successful level of intervention to bullying |
Whole schools |
|
|
|
What are the 3 parts of Get Real About Violence |
1. Raise awareness 2. Examine how nonaction enables violent norms 3. Teach strategies for changing violent norms |
|
|
|
What did Freeman and Mims find on GRAV? |
It improved expectations that an adult would help but didn't have an impact on peer perceptions Recipients more likely to report that they would behave prosocially if witnessing aggression and less likely to react aggressively if they were provoked |
|
|
|
Nature via nurture looks at what correlation? |
Gene-environment correlation rGE |
|
|
|
What environments important for child development are under genetic influences (A=15-40%) |
Family environment Parental discipline and warmth Peer relationships Controllable life events, such as parental divorce and exposure to trauma |
|
|
|
What is nature via nurture |
The environment is not independent of the person: humans select, modify and create environments in line with their genetic propensity |
|
|
|
What are the 3 types of gene-environment correlation |
Passive Evocative Active |
|
|
|
What is the source of passive gene-environment correlation? |
Parents and siblings |
|
|
|
What is the passive type of gene-environment correlation? |
Parental genes influence parental behaviours that play a role in determining the kind of rearing environment that they provide |
|
|
|
What is the evocative type of GE correlation? |
Child genes influence child behaviours that play a role in evoking different types of responses in othrr people |
|
|
|
What is the active type of GE correlation? |
Child genes influence child behaviours that play a role in determining how children shape and select their environments |
|
|
|
How can we study passive gene-environment correlation? |
Compare parent-child correlations in non-adoptive vs adoptive, expect to see high correlation in non-adoptive |
|
|
|
What is an example of studying passive GE correlations |
IQ found there is still substantial effect of environment factors in adoptive, but not as strong as just biologicalical families |
|
|
|
How is evocative GE correlation studied? |
See correlation between adoptive families only in how they respond and child characteristics (possibly given by looking at behaviour of biological parents) |
|
|
|
2 examples of evocative GE correlations |
Children at risk for behavioural problems evoke nevative parenting or negative reaction from peers Children with positive personality (high extraversion) evoke more positive responses from parents/peers |
|
|
|
The active rGE leads to what effect |
Rich get richer effect |
|
|
|
How to study the active GE correlation |
Twin designs |
|
|
|
What's an example of an active GE correlation study |
64% of variance in adolescents exposure to friends who smoke and drink could be explained by genetic influences, whereas shares environmental influences were 0% |
|
|
|
What is the issue with studying active GE correlations, in reference to the study |
So genetics can influence the formation of friendships with substance-using peers Cannot control for the evocative correlation, probably both types |
|
|
|
How does the role of the passive rGE change? |
Declines from infancy to adolescence |
|
|
|
How does the role of the active rGE change? |
Increases from infancy to adolescence |
|
|
|
What is the nature by nurture name? |
Gene-environment interaction |
|
|
|
What is the gene-environment interaction |
Genetically influenced sensitivity to specific environments |
|
|
|
What is an example of gene-environment interaction |
Conduct problems as a function of genetic risk and physical maltreatment |
|
|
|
What does epigenetics do? |
Determine how much of the proteins (synthesised from genetics) are made and where and when it is synthesised |
|
|
|
What is the most common type of epigenomic modification |
DNA methylation |
|
|
|
What does DNA methylation do? |
If methyl group attached, switches gene off |
|
|
|
What is a study on epigenetics/epigenomic modifications? |
Maternal licking and offspring behaviour in rats |
|
|
|
What did epigenetics on rats find? |
Hypermethylation (more switching off of gene) of the glucocorticoid receptor gene leads to lower expression of GR and higher levels of stress and anxiety in pups High nurturing raise low anxious offsprings |
|
|
|
According to the fear survey schedule for children, how many fears do children have on average |
14 |
|
|
|
Are females less likely to express dominant or recessive alleles? |
Recessive - X chrom has more genes, more likely to inherit dominant |
|
|
|
How can the enivornment affect genotype |
Epigenetics |
|
|
|
What are the 2 types of plasticity |
Experience-expectant Experience-dependent |
|
|
|
What is homophily |
The tendency to seek out those similar to oneself |
|
|
|
Name of the therapy that pairs anxious child with non anxious child |
Social effectiveness therapy |
|
|
|
What is Rolfe's criteria of pointing |
Dialgic - requires an audience Serves to single something out Direction of what is being pointed at is away from pointing hand |
|
|
|
At what age do infants engage communicatively with adults |
Around 2 months |
|
|
|
What age do infants lose interest with adults and become involved in objects |
5 months |
|
|
|
Around what age does real communication begin to emerge, and objects are integrated into interactions |
Around 9-10 months |
|
|
|
What does Schwann cells produce? |
Myelin |
|
|
|
What are piagets 3 stages of morality |
1. Rules and duties are unchangable, justice is whatever authoirities say 2. Egalitarian interactions with peers - rules can be changed by group and value fairness and equality 3. Understand rules are a product of social agreement and can be changed by the majority |
|
