Introduction To Psychology Chapter 1

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Psychology

Back 1

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

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Pure Research

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Research Conducted without concern for immediate application

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Applied Research

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Research conducted in an effort to find solutions to particular problems

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Theories

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Formulations of apparent relationships among observed events

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Introspection

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Deliberate looking into one's own thoughts and feelings to gain self knowledge

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Structuralism

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The school of Psychology that argues the mind consists of 3 basic elements: sensations, feelings, and images- that combine to form experience

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Functionalism

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The school of psychology that emphasizes the uses or functions of the mind and behavior rather than just the elements of experience

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Behaviorism

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The school of psychology that defines psychology as the study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses

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Reinforcement

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A stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response

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Gestalt Psychology

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The school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and to integrate separate stimuli into meaningful pattern

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Insight

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In Gestalt Psychology, the sudden reorganization of perceptions allowing the sudden solution of a problem

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Psychoanalysis

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The school of psychology that asserts that much of our behavior & mental processes is governed by unconscious ideas & impulses that have their origins in childhood conflicts

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Evolutionary Perspective

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The view that our behavior and mental processes have been shaped, at least in part by natural selection as our ancestors strove to meet prehistoric and historic challenges

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Instictive

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An inborn pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus (made possible by nervous system & brain)

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Biological Perspective

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The approach to psychology that seeks to understand the nature of the links between biological processes and structures such as the functioning of the brain, the endocrine system & heredity, on the one hand, and behavior on the other

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Cognitive Perspective

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The approach to psychology that focuses on the nature of consciousness and mental processes such as sensation & perception, memory, problem solving, decision making, judgement, language, and intelligence

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Humanism

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The philosophy and school of psychology that asserts that people are conscious, self-aware, and capable of free choice, self fulfillment, and ethical behavior

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Existentialism

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The view that people are free and responsible for their own behavior

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Gender

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The culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity

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Ethnic Group

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A group characterized by common features such as cultural heritage, history, race, and language

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Social Cognitive Theory

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A school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation & prediction of behavior formerly termed social learning theory

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Cognition

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The use of mental processes to perceive and mentally represent the world, think, and engage in problem solving and decision making

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Sociocultural Perspective

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The view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socio-economic status in behavior and mental processes

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Critical Thinking

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An approach to the examination of arguments based on skepticism, logical analysis, and insistence upon the importance of empirical evidence

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Empirical Science

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A science that obtains evidence by experience or experimentation

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The Scientific Method

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An approach to acquiring or confirming knowledge that is based on gathering measurable evidence through observation & experimentation (evidence is often obtained to test hypothesis)

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Hypothesis

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Within the science of psychology, a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is testable through research

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Correlation

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An association or relationship among variable as we might find between height and weight or between study habits and school grades

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Selection Factor

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A source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study

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Replicate

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Repeat, reproduce, copy (an experiment to obtain same results)

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Sample

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Part of population (those you test in order to make a statement)

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Population

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A complete group of organisms or events (group of people you want to make a statement about)

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Generalize

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To extend from the particular to the general, to apply observations based on a sample to a population

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Random Sample

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A sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate

Reduces any preexisting differences between the groups right from the start

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Stratified Sample

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A sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample

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Volunteer Bias

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A source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not

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Case Study

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A carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests

problems with: validity

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Survey

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A method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior

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Naturalistic Observation

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A scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments (real life settings)

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Correlational Method or Research

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A mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases or decreases as another variable increases or decreases. For example, there is a correlation between intelligence test scores and grades in school

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Correlation Coefficient

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A number between +1.00 and -1.00 that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables

(perfect negative & perfect positive)

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Magnitude (the strength of the correlation)

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Reflects the strength of the correlation. The closer the number is to one, the stronger the relationship between those variables

0-.3 = weak

.3-.6 = moderate

.6-.10 - strong

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Direction (Positive or Negative)

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Pos.: two variables that are positively correlated vary in the same direction - increase or decrease together

Neg.:two variables that are negatively correlated move in opposite directions

0 correlation: no relationship between variables

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Correlation does not mean Causation

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strength- can study variables that cannot be manipulated

weakness- correlation does not imply causation

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Experiment or Experimental Research

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A scientific method that seeks to confirm cause and effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables

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Treatment

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In experiments, a condition received by participants so that its effect may be observed

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Independent Variable

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The aspect of a situation that is intentionally manipulated or varied by the experimenter

ex. amount of practice allowed, drug or placebo, temp. of room

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Dependent Variable

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The aspect of a situation that is observed and measured while the independent variable is changed

ex. speed of response, number of cigarettes smoked

variable A -> variable B

variable B -> variable A

variable C -> variable A & variable B

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Experimental Groups

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The group that gets the treatment (independent variable)

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Control Group

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Similar to experimental group in all ways except it does not get the treatment (no independent variable)

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Placebo

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Pill or treatment given in such a way that the person believes that it is active and effective/ controls for placebo effect (which is any effect that comes from participants expectations)

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Matching

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ensuring that participants in conditions (experimental & control) are comparable on key variables related to the dependent variable

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Single Blind Procedure ( controls for participant expectations)

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In experimental terminology, being unaware of whether one has received a treatment or not

the participant is unaware of expected outcomes and group assignment

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Double Blind Procedure (controls for researcher bias)

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A study in which neither the participants nor the observers know who has received the treatment

unaware of expected outcomes and group assigments

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Quasi-experiment

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Like experiments, but without random assignments and participants are already in pre-existing groups. ex. males & females

Harder to make casual inferences from quasi experiments than from experiments

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Ethical

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moral; referring to one's system of deriving standards for determining what is moral

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Informed Consent

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A participant's agreement to participate in research after receiving information about the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatments

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Debrief

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To elicit information about a completed procedure

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Experimenter Bias or Experimenter expectancy effects

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A condition in which a researcher expects or desires a certain outcome in a research study, possibly affecting the outcome

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What kinds of things do psychologists study?

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psychological disorders, development, learning, user-friendly, sex, drugs, sensations, memories, consciousness, perception, neuroscience, etc....

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Verifiable

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able to be confirmed; replicate (repeat original methods and obtain same results)

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Reliability

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consistent results over time and with different observers

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Validity

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measures what it intends to measure

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Cummulative

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Builds on past research

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Public

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making their work public

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Parsimonious

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most simple and basic explanation

K.I.S.S

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variables

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any aspect of a situation that can vary or change and is measurable

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Theory vs. Hypothesis

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Theory: a set of ideas that explain or predict behavior

Hypothesis: an educated guess about what it is we are studying and what we expect to find (ex. If a person is in a cold room, then he/she will be more alert)

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Operational Definitions

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define concepts specifically in terms of how those concepts can be measured

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The Scientific Method

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Hypothesize: to generate an educated guess

Operationalize: take the hypothesis and translate to variables we can observe & measure

Measure: an amount or degree of something, to perform the experiment?

Evaluate: Analyze the data (statistical analysis)

Replicate, reuse, report

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Descriptive Research

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Summarize and organize large samples of data

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Laboratory Observation

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A controlled experimental situation

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Reactivity (hidden observers, participant observers, observe end results)

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when people are observed they may respond differently knowing that they are being watched

h.b.- ex hidden mirrors

p.b.- researcher becomes part of situation itself

o.e.r.- observe the results

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external validity

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generalized ability, do these results apply to real life settings?

it is the extent to which the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and to other people

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survey

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provides information about some behavior across large populations or regions

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meta analysis

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statistical technique that combines results from a number of different studies and looks for patterns in the data

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American Psychologist Association Guidelines

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1. Protection from harm: max. benefits/min risks

2. Informed Consent:

3. Confidentiality:

4. Deception/Debriefing: avoid deception unless necessary, not w children/ end of study where they tell the true details and why twas necessary to deceive them

5. Research with Animals: proper housing

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Institution Review Board (IRB)

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oversee and review the work coming out of the institution or lab to make sure it follows the guidelines

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Experiments Strength & Weakness

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strength- you can make causal inferences

weakness- only for variables that can be maniplated

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Critical Consumers

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1. Source of Study: where does it come from

2. Design of Study: single blind or double blind

3. Correlation and Causation:

4. Generalizability: external validity if results generalize to real world

5. Reliability: consistency

6. Validity: does the study measure what it says it measures

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Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist

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Psychologist: advanced degree in psychology/ advanced in the state/ psychologists cannot prescribe medications/psychotherapy

Psychiatrist: is a medical doctor (wet to a medical school and has specialized in psychiatry)/can prescribe meds

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Goals of Psychology

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Seek to describe ,explain, predict and control the events it studies (behavior & mental processes)

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What do Psychologists do?

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Engage in research, practice, & teach

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Socrates

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"Know Thyself"/Introspection/ believes the senses provide imperfect knowledge, rational thought, people influence one another

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Aristotle

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similar concepts to modern psych books, wrote "Peri Psyches"

human behavior is subject to rules & laws

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Democritus

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suggested we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind.

behavior is influenced by external stimulation

"Free will or choice"

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Fields of Psychology

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clinical psychologist, counseling, school, educational, developmental, personality, social, environmental, experimental, industrial, organizational, etc...

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Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)

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-used introspection

-Wundt & his students founded the school of psychology called structuralism (objective sensations and subjective feeling)

-He established the 1st psych.l lab in Germany

-Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience down into objective sensations

-Structuralists believed that the mind functions by combining objective & subjective elements

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Functionalism (William James)

Influenced by Darwinism

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-towards the end of the 19th century he became a major figure in the development of psychology in the U.S.A (called 1st American Psych.)

-focused on relation between conscious experience & behavior

-Functionalists looked at how our experiences help us function more adaptively in our environments

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Behaviorism (John B. Watson & Skinner)

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-Watson was the founder of American Behaviorsim. Conducted Little Albert experiment

-Believed that if psychology was to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable measurable events(behavior)

-Skinner believed organisms learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced/trained animals/because of this many psychs have view that human behavior derives from reinforcement

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Gestalt Psychology (Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler)

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-three founders of this school/ was prominent in Germany before they left to escape Nazi threat/then carried on work in U.S.A

-Gestalt psychs focused on perception and how perception influences thinking & problem solving/ saw perceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts

-learning is accomplished by insight(Kohler came up with)

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Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson)

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-originated by Sigmund Freud

-psychoanalysis aims to help patients gain insight into their conflicts and to find socially acceptable ways of expressing wishes and gratifying needs

-people are motivated to gratify primitive sexual and aggressive impulses, even if they are unaware of their true motives

-unconscious processes are more influential than conscious thought

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Evolutionary Perspective

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-like natural selection and Darwinism (survival of the fittest) /Evolutionary psychologists suggest that much human social behavior such as aggressive behavior and mate selection has a hereditary basis

-evolutionary psychs believe inherited tendencies whisper in people's ears and move them in certain directions

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Biological Perspective

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-They use techniques such as CAT scans and fMRI that show which parts of the brain are involved in certain activities

-links biological processes with behavior and mental processes

-endocrine system affects behavior/mental processes

-Biological perspective tends to focus on events that occur below the level of consciousness

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Cognitive Perspective

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-has roots in Socrates advice to "Know Thyself" (Introspection)

-also find roots in structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt Psychology

-rapid expansion in last couple of decades

-studies the mind

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Humanistic-Existential Perspective

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-it is cognitive but emphasizes the role of subjective (personal) experience

-stress the importance of subjective experiences and assert that people have the freedom to make choices

-consciousness is seen as the force that unifies our personalities

-Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow are Humanistic

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Psychodynamic Perspective

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-In the 1940s & 1950s, most psychotherapists were psychodynamically oriented. Today Freud's influence continues to be felt, although it no longer dominates methods of psychotherapy

-An approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience

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Perspective on Learning

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-2 major perspectives on learning

-Behaviorism where people are thought to do things because of their learning histories, their situations, and rewards rather than conscious choice

-modern social cognitive theorists in contrast suggest that people can modify or create environments/people engage in intentional learning by observing others

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Sociocultural Perspective

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-these psychologists take into account diverse backgrounds and how the role of a culture's beliefs, values, and attitudes in behavior and mental processes make people behave and think in different ways/ The science of psych is enriched by addressing those differences

-The sociocultural perspective addresses many of the ways that people differ from eachother

mental process,ethnicity,culture,social status