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71 Cards in this Set
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social constructionism |
A perspective focusing on how individuals put together their social reality- social constructs arise from humans communicating and working together to agree on significance of a concept or principle |
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ex. of social constructionism |
Can be applied to intangible objects – how a society defines honor or justice Can also be applied to tangible objects – relates to paper money & coinage |
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Race |
a social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people-may be either real or perceived differences – not strictly defined by genetics, but rather on superficial traits such as skin color |
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Racialization |
definition or establishment of a group as a particular race (though definition features need not be static) |
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Racial formation theory |
racial identity is fluid and dependent on concurrent political, economic, social factors |
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Essentialist |
race is a natural phenomenon, a characteristic of people based on genetic traits, a feature of an entire person; race persists because people have a natural and deeply ingrained suspicion of the unfamiliar – people different from themselves – well-meaning attempts to eradicate racial differences are bound to fail |
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Constructionist |
racial categories not natural - invented by people – races only found in some societies; they vary across societies & change in form over time – physical differences between races are incidental – some are selected while others are not – race persists less because of primordial suspicion of difference, more because actively/intentionally reproduced |
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Roy: how do people tend to think about race |
have particular physical characteristics in common, fall into distinct and sharply bounded groups, inherit their racial status, share behavioral characteristics that are imputed to their physical qualities (i.e., stereotypes), are ranked hierarchically, He also later states that because races are seen as genetic, they are popularly seen as permanent |
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Pre-racial categories |
“civilized” versus “uncivilized”“believers” versus “heathens”“native” versus “stranger” based on territoriality |
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Roy and his argument of where face came from |
argues that later, the concept of race came out of slavery (as a way to justify the domination of one group over another) not the other way around |
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chattel slavery |
defined people as property |
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Roy argues 5 factors moved Europe from preracial to racial categories |
Rise of capitalism Coincident rise of egalitarian valuesEnglish cultural construct of “the savage”Legitimization of racial concepts by scienceEnforcement of racial domination by government |
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Egalitarian values |
A rising demand for human rights meant chattel slavery was a huge contradiction, so concept of race was developed to define some humans as not human, due to natural, biological differences, and thus not deserving of human rights |
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biological reductionism |
attempt to explain behavioral differences between groups on basis of biological differences |
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Brandt - Racism & Research: The case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study |
Social & scientific conditions allowed Tuskegee experiment to be initiated & continue for 40 years, despite it being deeply unethical, based on deception & disregard for human suffering |
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Ex. of Institutional discrimination |
primary institutions like schools, economy, political system reproduce inequality through their normal operation when racial/ethnic inequalities are already in place |
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cumulative disadvantage |
Inter- and intra-generational mobility affected at each step, some groups disadvantaged - by later adulthood or next generation, even farther behind |
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ethnicity |
also a social construct, sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, etc. |
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Which of the following statements about habitus are true? |
Habitus is mostly subconscious/unconscious Habitus bridges all three levels of analysis – micro, meso, and macro |
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Zoey struggles with math and has failed three quizzes this year. However, since she started tutoring a few weeks ago, she has started to feel more confident in her abilities. |
Labeling theory |
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In Code of the Street, Anderson argues that people living in disadvantaged contexts have few means of achieving status “in middle-class ways,” which may encourage behavior seen as socially deviant (like violence or theft). Anderson’s argument most closely mirrors which sociological theory of deviance? |
Strain theory |
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Which of the following arguments does Zola make about medicalization? |
Medicalization may contribute to the overuse of medical interventions – medications, screening procedures, and diagnoses themselves Medicalization may contribute to inequality and power imbalance by granting specific individuals or institutions exclusive authority to determine what does (or doesn’t) constitute illness or health |
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Sex |
treated as a biological categoryBased on observable morphological traits, often genitalia but also hip-to-shoulder ratio, facial features & body sizeAlso chromosomal (males XY & females XX) |
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Gender |
a social construct often linked to the behavioral, cultural or psychological traits typically associated with biological sexes |
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Biological dimorphism |
female-male differences in size, color, patterning, phenotypic characteristics |
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Gender identity |
a person’s appraisal of self on scales of masculinity & femininity – two separate scales – usually well established by age of 3, though can morph/change |
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Androgyny |
high on both male and female traits |
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undifferentiated |
low on both male and female traits |
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cis-gender |
gender identity matches biological sex assigned at birth |
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transgender |
gender identity differs wholly or in part from biological sex assigned at birth, or person does not subscribe to gender binary |
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Gender inequality |
intentional or unintentional empowerment of one gender to the detriment of another |
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Gender segregation |
separation of individuals based on their perceived gender – including division into gender typed bathrooms, sports teams, single gender schools, or in other ways |
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Gender & inequality in the labor force |
Women’s contributions marginalized – e.g., financial inequality in the workforce – equal pay for equal work? Women less frequently promoted in workplace & underrepresented in powerful positions = “glass ceiling” |
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Farmer: “Invisible Women” from Infections and Inequalities |
Their sickness is a result of structural violence: neither culture nor pure individual will is at fault…historically given (often economically driven) processes & forces conspire to constrain individual agency. Structural violence is visited upon all those whose social status denies them access to the fruits of scientific & social progress |
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intersectional identities |
Perspective noting intersecting social identities, particularly in relation to specific systems of domination or oppression ex. Race EthnicityGenderSocio-economic status (SES)Sexual Orientation(Dis)Ability Status |
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Lorber "Night to his day" |
It pre-dates our entrance into the social world It has a recognizable pattern that is socially enforcedIt systematically motivates certain behaviors & constrains othersIt organizes our social relations It is tied to many other social institutions It is more or less stably reproduced over time |
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Lorber perspective on gender |
Lorber argues that gender is such a strong social institution even trans people may not be disrupting the gender binary if they perform the role & appearance in a way that respects this binary |
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Pascoe: “fag discourse” |
“Fag discourse” is about more than homophobia & sexual orientation – Pascoe argues it’s about policing masculinity & gendered boundaries (for boys, not girls) |
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Sexual orientation |
The direction of sexual interest toward members of same (homosexual), opposite (heterosexual) or both sexes (bisexual) – distinct from gender identity |
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Conrad on social construction of illness |
Social constructionism is a conceptual framework that emphasizes the cultural and historical aspects of phenomena widely thought to be exclusively natural. The emphasis is on how meanings of phenomena do not necessarily inhere in the phenomena themselves, but develop through interaction in a social context…how individuals and groups contribute to producing perceived social reality and knowledge.” |
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Social constructionist approach to illness rooted in conceptual distinction |
between disease [biological condition] and illness [social meaning of the condition] |
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Medical model |
diseases are universal & invariant across time & place |
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Social constructionist model |
meaning & experience of illness shaped by cultural & social systems |
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Expert knowledge --> constructs illness |
Medical expert knowledge produces our understanding of diseases, influences patients’ behaviors, shapes their identities & experiences, legitimates medical interventions (or not intervening) |
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Cultural meanings of illness - Conrad |
Some illnesses stigmatized, some contested, some considered disabilities - for social, not purely biological reasonsCultural meanings affect experience of the sufferer, depiction of the illness, the social, policy & intervention response |
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disability |
the social experience & meaning of the impairment – becomes disability when blocks performance of expected social roles (e.g., employment) |
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Social stigma |
is extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society |
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Contested illnesses |
disorders where sufferers claim to have a specific disease that many physicians do not recognize or acknowledge as distinctly medical – e.g., chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia syndrome – not associated with physical abnormality |
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embrace of illness identity |
May create & join illness-based social movements, create lay knowledge about conditions & build communities, potentially changing interactions with their providers or challenging medical authority |
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Medicalization or pathologization |
process by which human conditions & social problems come to be defined & treated as medical conditions |
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Deviance and social problems |
Many mental health issues, alcoholism regarded & treated as disease rather than as natural, or personal/ moral failings (how they were viewed in the past)Medicalizing can be de-stigmatizing (not your fault, i.e. sick role), or stigmatizing (Essential to character instead of just behaviors) |
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Engine 1: biotechnology |
Technology & drugs always drivers of medicalization, but more recently, pharmaceutical companies have become major playerDirect to consumer drug advertising |
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Engine 2: consumers |
We are now consumers in choosing health insurance plans, purchasing health care in marketplace, and selecting institutions of care, providers now compete for us |
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Engine 3: managed care |
Over last several decades, managed care organizations began to dominate health care delivery in response to rising costs of health care – requires preapproval for some treatments, sets limits on some types of care |
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Conrad and managed care |
argues that managed care is incentive for medicalization (insurance coverage limited for psychotherapy, but liberal for psychiatric medications), but also may constrain, by deciding how much medicalized treatment to cover/ reimburse |
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Moral panic |
an exaggerated concern about a “social problem” |
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What is the evidence that FAS is a moral panic? |
Feverish public concernExaggerated estimates of incidence or increaseBiomedical entrepreneurship, Distortion of etiology, Democratization |
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Deviance |
violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society |
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Labeling theory |
placing a label on someone affects 1) how others respond to that person and also 2) that person’s self image |
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Differential association |
degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that reject social norms (deviant behaviors) versus ideals that adhere to them (norm-abiding behaviors) |
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Differential association theory |
suggests that when balance tilts toward more or more intense deviance exposure, one will begin to gravitate toward deviant behavior |
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Strain theory |
explains deviance as natural reaction to disconnect between social goals & social structure; e.g., the American Dream – desirable social goal blocked for some by stratified opportunity structure, who may resort to deviant behavior (such as theft) to achieve it |
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Essentialist view of deviance |
deviance an essential component of an individual (forever); deviants are born, not made; deviant acts are expression of deviant character |
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Social constructionist view of deviance |
Deviance is relational, cultural, & socially definedNormality & abnormality are not universal Labeling something as deviant is form of social control |
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Zola: Medicine as an institution of social control |
medicine is becoming an institution of social control, nudging aside, if not incorporating, the more traditional institutions of religion and law. It is becoming the new repository of truth, the place where absolute and often final judgments are made by supposedly morally neutral and objective experts. |
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Medicine’s de jure relation to social control |
“reportable” diseases (infectious, but also others- gunshot, suicide attempts, drug use) |
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Medicine’s de facto relation to social control |
WHO is treated (are some groups given BETTER treatment & why?), WHAT is treated at all? |
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Four areas where the “medicalizing of society” is expanding |
Re: what in life is deemed relevant to the “good” practice of medicine Re: the absolute control over certain technical procedures Re: almost complete access to certain taboo areas Re: what is deemed relevant to practicing a “good” life |
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some concerns about the “medicalizing of society” from Zola |
Overuse of medicine – diagnoses, treatment, drugs (belief in the omnipresence of disorder)Misuse of power to determine what we should & should not do to attain optimal “health” |
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Rosenhan: On being sane in insane places |
Key question: do the salient characteristics that lead to diagnoses reside in patients themselves or in the environments & contexts in which observers find them? |
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Why were the Saints & Roughnecks labeled so differently? |
Visibility: outside the drugstore downtown or in a pool hall across town?Demeanor: penitent or resistant? How to play the game…Bias: how and why were criminal actions of two groups viewed differently? Did social class play a role? |
