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133 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Belt transect |
Two parallel lines laid out and plants inbetween recorded. Can be point sampling, continuous or interrupted sampling. |
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Randomised sampling |
Each individual within a sample region has an equal chance of being selected. |
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Systematic sampling |
Tracking changes across a particular section of habitat. |
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Stratified sampling |
Where the researcher divides the entire population into different subgroups (or strata) then selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata. |
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Phylogeny |
The evolutionary history of a species or a group of species. |
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Taxonomy |
Hierarchical method used to classify organisms. A taxon is a taxonomic unit. |
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What are the there domains of life? |
Bacteria Archaea Eukarya |
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Divergent evolution |
Different selection pressures have acted on common ancestor so new forms show different characteristics. |
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Convergent evolution |
Different original forms show similar characteristics because they had the same selection pressure. |
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Members of the plant kingdom |
Missed Liverworts Ferns Conifers Flowering plants |
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Members of the animal kingdom |
Chordata Platyhelminths Mollusca Nematodes Athropoda |
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Chordata |
Diesel nerve chord E.g. sea squirts and vertebrates |
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Platyhelminths |
Flatworms. Bilateral symmetry. Internal organs but no bost cavity, many parasitic. E.g. flatworms, e.g liverfluke or tapeworm |
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Mollusca |
Diverse, many with shells. E.g. snails, oyster, squid |
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Nematoda |
Roundworms: very Diverse, many parasitic. E.g. whipworm, ascaris (parasitic roundworm), c.elegans |
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Arthropoda |
Joint-legged invertebrates: segmented body typically with paired appendages. E.g. insects, spiders, crabs, drosophila melanogaster |
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Indicator species |
The presence, absence or abundance of these species indicate high levels kf organic waste. |
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N=MC/R |
M= number of animals first marked and released C= number of animals captured in second sample R= number of marked animals recaptured in the second sample N= total population |
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5 marking techniques |
Banding Tagging Surgical implantation Hair clipping |
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Ethology |
The study of animal behaviour |
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Anthropomorphism |
To generalise from humans to non-humans and give an animal behaviour a human interpretation. |
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Ethogram |
A list of behaviour repertoire typical for the species under study. |
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Time budget |
Represents the percentage of tinw that an animal spends doing each of the observed behaviours. |
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Latency |
The time from an event (presentation of a stimulus) to the first occurrence of a certain behaviour. |
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Evolution |
The change over time in the proportion of individuals in a population in one or more inherited traits. |
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Gene pool |
The sum of all the alleles of all the genes in a population at any one time. |
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Natural selection |
The non random process where certain alleles become more frequent within a population. |
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Sexual selection |
A non random process that involves the selection of traits that increase and individuals reproductive success. |
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Genetic drift |
A random process that is a change in frequency of a particular allele within a small population. |
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Mutation |
A change in an organisms DNA. |
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Relative fitness |
The ratio of surviving offspring of one genotype compared with other genotypes. |
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Absolute fitness |
The ratio of frequencies of a particular genotype from one generation to the next. |
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Vertical gene transfer |
Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation through the processes of meiosis and fertilisation |
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3 mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer |
Transformation Conjugation Transduction |
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Factors which increase evolution |
Shorter generation times Warmer environments Sexual reproduction Horizontal gene transfer Higher selection pressures |
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Co-evolution |
The reciprocal evolutionary adaptation lf two interacting species. |
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Red queen hypothesis |
The co-evolutionary arms race between parasite and it's host as both organisms must keeping running in order to stay still. |
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Sexual reproduction |
The fusion of gametes, resulting in dissimilar offspring. |
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Parthenogenesis |
Where an unfertilised egg develops into a new individual e g fire ants and bees |
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Meiosus |
The form of nuclear division which results in the production of four haploid gametes from one haploid gametes mother cell (produces gametes) |
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Interphase |
Before the process of meiosis begins, each chromosome replicates itself forming two identical chromatids. |
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Linked genes |
When any 2 genes are on the same chromosome. |
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Hermaphrodite |
A single organism that has male and female reproductive organs. |
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Environmental conditions that can change sex |
Temperature; presence of parasitic infection; resource availability; competition or size |
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What does X inactivation do |
Prevents a double dose of gene products whigh could be deleterious to the females phenotype. |
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Serial dilution |
The stepwise dilution of a substance in solution. |
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Linear dilution |
Where concentrations are separated by an equal amount |
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Log dilution |
Where conentrations are seperated by a constant proportion often refereed to as a step propoption. There are two types: doubling dilution and decimal dilution. |
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A buffer solution |
One which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or an alkali are added to it. They are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. |
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Standard curves |
Represent the relationship between two quantities. Used to determine the value of an unknown quantity from one that is morw easily measured. |
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Colorimeter |
Measures the absorbance of specific wavelengths of light by a solution. Passed a light beam, at a specific wavelength, through a cuvette containing a sample solution. Some light is absorbed by tge sample |
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Substances can be separated according to their... |
Solubility Size Shape Charge |
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Separation techniques |
- centrifugation - paper, thin layer and affinity chromatography - protein electrophoresis - iso-electric point |
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Centrifugation |
Allows substances to be separated according to their density. Densest materials separate out first and form a pellet at the bottom of the tube. The liquid remaining above is the supernatant. |
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Paper and thin layer chromatography |
The solvent moves up through the chromatography paper and carries the components of the mixture with it. Components will travel at different rates depending on their solubility. |
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Affinity chromatography |
The binding interactions between a protein and another substance to purify a protein. (Seperation of one specific protein from a mixture) |
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How does affinity chromatography work |
A ligand is immobilised in a column and the mixture of proteins is poured through the column. The protein which is complementary to the ligand in the column will bind to it and remain in the column while the other components are washed away. The target protein is then stripped from the column resulting in seperation and purification from the original sample |
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How do antibodies bind to antigens |
Antibodies (made by white blood cells) bind very specifically to antigens and are y shaped proteins with an antigen binding site on each short arm of yhe Y. |
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Antibody techniques use antibodies to... |
Cause a colour change in the presence of a specific antigen. As antibodies are very specific this is used to indicate the presence of that protein. |
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Reporter enzymes |
Immunoassay techniques |
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Fluorescent dyes |
Immunohistochemical staining |
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Monoclonal antibodies are produced by |
Using hybridomas formed from the fusion of a B lymphocyte with a myeloma cell using polyethylene glue (PEG) |
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Why is tge B lymphocyte fused sith a myeloma cell? |
The B lymphocyte gives the hybridoma the ability to produce the appropriate antibody and the myeloma cell makes the hybridoma cell line immortal. |
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Iso-electric point |
A proteins characteristic pH. They have no overall charge and precipitate out of solution. |
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Protein electrophoresis |
Uses current flowing through a buffer to separate proteins. |
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Genome |
The genetic material of an organism |
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Proteome |
The entire set of proteins expressed by a a genome. |
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Why is the proteome larger than the number of genes |
Due to alternative RNA splicing and post-translational modification. Not all genes are expressed as proteins in a particular cell. |
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RNA splicing |
Different introns are removed and different exons are spliced together meaning that several different mRNA transcripts are produced and so several different proteins from a single gene |
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Post translational modification |
The alteration of the protein after translation. Polypeptide chains undergo post translational modifications such as folding, cutting/cleaning and addition of non-Protein molecules before becoming the nature protein product. |
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Primary structure in a peptide bond |
The sequence in which the amino acids are synthesised into the polypeptide. |
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Hydrogen bonding in polypeptides |
Hydrogen bonding along the backbone of the protein strand results in regions of secondary structure |
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Secondary structures |
Anti-parallel beta sheet Parallel beta sheet Alpha helix Turns |
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Structure of amino acid |
Central carbon Amine Carboxylic acid Hydrogen Variable R group |
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Basic (positively charged) R group |
- alkaline - more side chain that can accept a proton (H+) and become positively charged - hydrophilic and form H bonds with water or other amino acids |
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Acidic (negatively charged) R group |
- side chain that can donate a proton (H+) become ionized and strongly hydrophilluv - form bonds with water on surface of protein and other amino acids within the protein |
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Polar R group |
- hydrophilic - oxygen and nitrogen in side chain - usually found on outer surface of proteins forming wrak H bonds with other amino acids and maintaining shape of protein |
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Hydrophobic R group |
- non polar - no oxygen or nitrogen in side chain and so do not become charged - cluster away from surface of protein and so do not have to interact with water - large non polar side chains have greater hydrophobic force |
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Prosthetic groups |
A non-Protein unit tightly bound to a protein and necessary for it's function |
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Quaternary structure |
Proteins with several connected polypeptide subunits. |
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Temperature on the R group interactions |
Temperature increases the kinetic energy of the protein molecule placing stress on bonds and breaking them |
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Effect of pH on R group interactions |
Changes in pH affect the concentration of H+ and OH- ions I solution. This in turn changes the relative charge of the protein. This results in the denaturing of the protein and the loss of tertiary structure and function. |
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Ligand |
A substance that can bind to a protein. |
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A change in protein conformation causes a |
Functional change in the protein |
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Induced fit in enzymes occurs when |
The correct substrate starts to bind resulting in a temporary change in shape of the active site increasing the binding and interaction with the substrate. |
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Allosteric enzyme |
One which changes conformation (shape) upon bonding a modulator. Modulators bind at secondary bonding sites (allosteric sites) |
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Negative modulators |
Reduce the enzymes affinity. (Inhibition) |
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Positive modulator |
Increase the enzymes affinity for the substrate. (Activator) |
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Cooperativity |
Changes in binding at one subunits alter the affinity of the remaining subunits. |
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Haemoglobin |
- Has quaterbary structure as it has 4 polypeptide subunits each containing a haem prosthetic group. - each haem able to bind to a molecule of oxygen - when one subunit binds to a molecule of oxygen, the second binds more easily and so on (cooperativity) - when oxy-haemoglobin releases oxygen the same process happens in the reverse. |
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Kinase and phosphatase responsibilites |
Kinase often responsible for phosphorylation of other protein and phosphatase catalysts dephosphorylation |
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Parental investment |
All the contributions by a parent that increases the probability that an offspring will survive to reproduce. |
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Monogamy |
The system in which each breending adult mates wirh only one individual of the opposite sex. Often seasonal |
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Imprinting |
The irreversible process in young birds where they fixate on a larger living thing for protection and nurturing which may affect mate choice later on in life. |
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Ecological niche |
The multidimensional summary of requirements and tolerances of a species |
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Multidimensional |
All the aspects of the organisms life |
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Requirements in ecological niche |
Food type, resources for shelter, soil minerals and light intensity. |
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Tolerances in ecological niche |
The conditions the organisms can withstand, ranges of temperatures and level of pH salinity |
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Niche overlap |
When different species have similar resource requirements and tolerances and leads to competition |
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Fundamental niche |
The paradiates niche in the absence of interspecific competition |
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A realised niche |
The parasites niche in the presence of interspecific competition. Generally narrower than the fundamental niche. |
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Competitive exclusion |
Occurs due to intense interspecific competition where the realised niches of the two species are very similar and one species becomes locally extinct. |
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Resource partitioning |
Occurs due to interspecific competition ehrte the realised niches of the two species are suffiniciently different. The two species compromise over resources and therefore manage to exist simultaneously. |
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Parasites are.. |
A symbiont that gains benefit in terms of nutrients at the expense of it's host and is different from a predator because the reproductive potential of the parasite is much greater than that of the host. |
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Degenerate parasites |
Parasites lacking in certain structures and organs. |
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Primary host |
Aka definitive host The organism on or in which the parasite reaches sexual maturity |
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Secondary host |
Aka intermediate host May also be required for the parasite to complete it's lifecycle |
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Vector (parasites) |
Plays an active role in the transmission of the parasite and may also be a host. |
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Sexual phase in parasites |
Generates variation allowing for rapid evolution |
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Asexual phase in parasites |
Allows for the rapid build up of parasites in the population but no variation |
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Transmission |
The spread of a parasite to a host |
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Virulence |
The harm caused to a host species by a parasite |
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Parasites extended phenotype |
Modifications to a hosts behaviour that are caused by parasitic infection |
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5 modifications to host behaviour that help increase transmission rates |
Foraging behaviour Sexual behaviour Anti-predator behaviour Movement Habitat choice |
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Six examples of parasitic types of organisms |
Protests Arthropods Platyhelminths Bacteria Nematoda Viruses |
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Transmission method of ectoparasite |
Direct contact |
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Transmission of endoparasute of body cavities |
Direct contact Consumption of intermediate host |
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Transmission method of endoparasite of body fluids |
Often transmitted by vectors |
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Viruses are composed of... |
Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed inside a protective protein coat. The outer surface contains antigens that are used to attach to a host cell and may or may not be detected by immune system. |
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Retroviruses |
Viruses that contain DNA as their genetic material rather than DNA. E.g. HIV |
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1st line of defence in immune response |
Outside the body - stop the parasite from entering the body. Non specific defence. E.g. physical barriers and chemical secretions |
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Second line of defence in immune response |
Attack parasite for being foreign. Non specific response. E.g. natural killer cells and inflammation phagocytes |
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Third line of defence in immune response |
Attack specific antigens on parasite. Specific cellular defence. E.g. lymphocytes and antibodies |
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Physical barrier example in non specific defences |
Skin Nasal hairs |
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Chemical secretions in non specific defences |
Mucus in nose and lungs Ear sad Tears with antibacterial chemicals Acid secretions in skin and in stomach |
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Lymphocytes |
Type of white blood cell found mainly in lymph glands |
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T killer lymphocyte |
Kills cells that are infected with a parasite in a more targeted way than natural killer cells and bring about apoptosis. |
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T helper lymphocytes |
Help to activate B cells and killer T cells during an immune response |
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B lymphocyte |
Produce antibodies that bind to and inactive invading parasites |
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Strategies evolved by endoparasites to resist the immune system |
1. Mimics host cell antigens. They evade detection by immune system so avoid destruction. 2. Modify the hosts immune response. This reduces chances of destruction 3. Antigenic variation in subsequent generations. Evolve faster than immune system can respond to new antigens |
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Epidemiology |
Study of the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases |
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Herd immunity |
There are not enough susceptible individuals to host the parasite and pass it on |
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Herd immunity threshold |
The density of resistant hosts needed in the population to prevent an epidemic |
