Sociology Chapter 1-5

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Sociology

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the systematic study of social interaction at a variety of levels

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sociological imagination

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the intersection between individual lives and larger social influences

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microsociology

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the study of small-scale patterns of individuals' social interaction in specific settings

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theory

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the set of statements that explains why a phenomenon occurs

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empirical

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information that is based on observations, experiments, or experiences rather than on ideology, religion, or intuition

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social facts

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aspects of social life, external to the individual, that can be measured

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social solidarity

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social cohesiveness and harmony

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division of labor

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an interdependence of different tasks and occupations, characteristic of industrialized societies, that produce social unity and facilitate change

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capitalism

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an economic system in which the ownership of the means of production - like land, factories, large sums of money, and machines - is in private hands

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alienation

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the feeling of separation from one's group or society

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value free

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separating one's personal values, opinions, ideology, and beliefs from scientific research

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functionalism (structural functionalism)

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an approach that maintains that society is a complex system of interdependent parts that work together to ensure a society's survival

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dysfunctional

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social patterns that have a negative impact on a group or society

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manifest functions

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functions that are intended and recognized; they are present and clearly evident

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latent functions

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functions that are unintended and unrecognized; they are present but not immediately obvious

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conflict theory

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an approach that examines the ways in which groups disagree, struggle over power, and compete for scarce resources (such as property, wealth, and prestige)

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feminist theories

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approaches that try to explain the social, economic, and political positions of women in society with a view of freeing women from traditionally oppressive expectations, constraints, roles, and behavior

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symbolic interactionism (interactionism)

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a micro-level perspective that looks at individuals' everyday behavior through the communication of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes

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interaction

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action in which people take each other into account in their own behavior

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social research

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research that examines human behavior

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scientific method

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the steps in the research process that include careful data collection, exact measurement, accurate recording and analysis of the findings, thoughtful interpretation of results, and, when appropriate, a generalization of the findings to a larger group

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variable

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a characteristic that can change in value or magnitude under different conditions

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hypothesis

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a statement of a relationship between two or more variables that researchers want to test

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independent variable

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a characteristic that determines or has an effect on the dependent variable

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independent variable

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the outcome, which may be affected by the independent variable

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reliability

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the consistency with which the same measure produces similar results time after time

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validity

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the degree to which a measure is accurate and really measures what it claims to measure

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deductive reasoning

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reasoning that begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is then tested through data collection

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inductive reasoning

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reasoning that begins with a specific observation, followed by data collection and the development of a general conclusion or theory

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population

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any well-defined group of people (or things) about whome researchers want to know something

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sample

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a group of people (or things) that are representative of the population researchers wish to study

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probability sample

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a sample for which each person (or things, such as an e-mail address) has an equal chance of being selected because the selection is random

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nonprobability sample

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a sample for which little or no attempt is made to get a representative cross section of the population

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qualitative research

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that examines nonnumerical material and interprets it

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quantitative research

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research that focuses on a numerical analysis of people's responses or specific characteristics

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surveys

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a systematic method for collecting data from respondents, including questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone interviews, or a combination of these

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secondary analysis

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examination of data that have been collected by someone else

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field research

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data collection by systematically observing people in their natural surroundings

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content analysis

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data collection method that systematically examines some form of communication

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experiment

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a carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to manipulate variables and measure the effects

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experimental group

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the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable

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control group

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the group of subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable

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evaluation research

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research that relies on all of the standard data collection techniques to assess the effectiveness of social programs in both the public and the private sectors

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culture

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the learned and shared behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and material objects that characterize a particular group or society

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society

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a group of people that has lived and worked together long enough to become an organized population and to think of themselves as a social unit

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culture

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the learned and shared beheaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and material objects that characterize a particular group or society

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society

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a group of people that has lived and worked together long enough to become an organized population and to think of themselves as a social unit

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material culture

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the tangible objects that members of a society make, use, and share

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nonmaterial culture

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the shared set of meanings that people in a society use to interpret and understand the world

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symbol

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anything that stands for something else and has a particular meaning for people who share a culture

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language

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a system of shared symbols that enables people to communicate with one another

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norms

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a society's specific rules concerning right and wrong behavior

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folkways

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norms that members of a society (or a group within a society) look upon as not being critical and that may be broken without severe punishment

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mores

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norms that members of a society consider very important because they maintain moral and ethical behavior

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laws

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formal rules about behavior that are defined by a political authority that has the power to punish violators

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sanctions

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rewards for good or appropriate behavior and/or penalties for bad or inappropriate behavior

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ideal culture

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the beliefs, values, and norms that people in a society say they hold or follow

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real culture

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the actual everyday behavior of people in a society

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cultural universals

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customs and practices that are common to all societies

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culture shocks

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a sense of confusion, uncertainty, disorientation, or anxiety that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life of environment

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subculture

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a group or category of people whose distinctive ways of thinking, feeling, and acting differ somewhat from those of the larger society

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counterculture

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a group or category of people who deliberately oppose and consciously reject some of the basic beliefs, values, and norms of the dominant culture

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ethnocentrism

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the belief that one's culture and way of life are superior to those of other groups

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cultural relativism

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the belief that no culture is better than another and that a culture should be judged by its own standards

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multiculturalism(cultural pluralism)

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the coexistence of several cultures in the same geographic area without any one culture dominating another

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popular culture

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the beliefs, practices, activities, and products that are widely shared among a population in everyday life

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mass media

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forms of communication designed to reach large numbers of people

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cultural imperialism

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the influence or domination of the cultural values and products of one society over those of another

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cultural integration

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the consistency of various aspects of society that promotes order and stability

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cultural lag

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the gap when nonmaterial culture changes more slowly than material culture

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socialization

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the lifelong process of social interaction in which the individual acquires a social identity and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that are essential for effective participation in a society

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internalization

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the process of learning cultural behaviors and expectations so deeply taht we assume they are correct and accept them without question

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sociobiology

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a theoretical approach that applies biological principles to explain the behavior of animals, including human beings

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social learning theories

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approaches whose central notion is that people learn new attitudes, beliefs, and ehaviors through social interaction, especially during childhood

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looking-glass self

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a self-image based on how we think others see us

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self

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an awareness of one's social identity

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role taking

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learning to take the perspective of others

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significant others

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the people who are important in one's life, such as parents or other primary caregivers and siblings

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anticipatory socialization

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the process of learning how to perform a role one doesn't yet occupy

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impression management

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the process of providing information and cues to others to present oneself in a favorable light while downplaying or concealing one's less appealing qualities

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reference groups

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groups of people who shape an individual's self-image, behavior, values, and attitudes in different contexts

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agents of socialization

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the individuals, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know to participate effectively in society

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peer group

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any set of people who are similar in age, social status, and interests

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resocialization

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the process of unlearning old ways of doing things and adopting new attitudes, values, norms, and behavior

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total institutions

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places where people are isolated from the rest of society, stripped of their former identities, and required to conform to new rules and behavior

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social interaction

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the process by which we act toward and react to people around us

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social structure

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an organized pattern of behavior that governs people's relationships

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status

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a social position that a person occupies in a society

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status set

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a collection of social statuses that an individual occupies at a given time

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ascribed status

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a social position that a person is born into

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achieved status

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a social position that a person attains through personal effort or assumes voluntarily

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master status

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an ascribed or achieved status that determines a person's identity

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status inconsistency

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the conflict or tension that arises from occupying social positions that are ranked differently

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role

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the behavior expected of a person who has a particular status

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role performance

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the actual behavior of a person who occupies a status

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role set

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the different roles attached to a single status

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role conflict

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the frustrations and uncertainties a person experiences when confronted with the requirements of two or more statuses

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role strain

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the stress arising from incompatible demands among roles within a single status

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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a situation where if we define something as real and act upon it, it can, in fact, become real

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ethnomethodology

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the study of how people construct and learn to share definitions of reality that make everyday interactions possible

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dramaturgical analysis

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a technique that examines social interaction as if occurring on a stage where people play different roles and act out scenes for the audiences with whom they interact

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social exchange theory

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the perspective whose fundamental premise is the any social interaction between two people is based on each person's trying to maximize rewards (or benefits) and minimize punishments (or costs)

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nonverbal communication

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messages that are sent without using words