Social Inequalities

Front 1

Social inequality

Back 1

It is a sociological problem

It is established by man

Constructed and implemented by social norms

Front 2

Natural inequalities

Back 2

Predetermined inequalities

Sex, age, health etc

Front 3

Equality of opportunity

Back 3

the resources available to a person to achieve the desired positions in society

Front 4

Inequality of outcomes

Back 4

A result of inequality of in the achieved positions and rewards attached to these positions

Front 5

Explain the concepts:

Assets

Positions

Rewards

Back 5

Assets have different groups, these can be economic, political, cultural, civil, social...

The degree of inequality in a given reward or asset depends on its dispersion of concentration across the population

If someone has an advantageous asset then they will be put into a higher position which will reap higher rewards.

This asset may be of high value because it isn't common or the place where they're from has less of a supply than demand. So this person will gain more - reward, which may increase their position.

Front 6

What are the 2 types of matching processes that produce inequality (stratification)?

Back 6

1. Social positions in society are matched to reward packages of unequal value. So matching positions to rewards.

2. Members of society are matched to or allocated to the positions, so defined and rewarded. The allocating of individuals to positions.

Front 7

What are the 4 crucial values to assess social inequality?

Back 7

1. Look at the degree of inequality in a given reward or asset, and look at the concentration or dispersion across the population

2. The rigidity of the system, this can be assessed by looking at continuity of social standing. A rigid system is one where you can predict a person's income by looking at their parents.

3. Ascriptive processes, this means the extent to which traits present at birth (race, sex, ethnicity, parental income) can influence the subsequent social standing of an individual.

4. The degree of status crystallisation, this is indexed by correlating assets (human, political, economic). If the correlations are strong then the same individuals will appear high/low again and again.

Front 8

6 parameters of stratification in an ideal typical society?

Back 8

• assets
• stratal class
• inequality
• rigidity
• crystallisation
• justifying ideology

Front 9

Basic issues in the debate on social inequality between radicals and conservatives

Back 9

Conservatives support the status quo, radicals question it. They fear the conservatives taking democracy and also question the divine right of kings.

Plato and Phaleas were egalitarian

Aristotle supported privatisation of institutions

John of Salisbury believed that society was split into different functions, and this created a mutual dependence.

Social inequality is a natural prerequisite

18th C aimed at eradicating legal inequality

19+20th C aimed at eradicating economic inequality

Front 10

Elements of liberalism as justifying ideology of inequalities of outcomes.

Back 10

Man needs incentives to be productive, capitalism is human nature

Naturalisation of the economy

After equality of opportunity the outcomes are down to the person, their moral responsibility

Front 11

Conflicting principles of distribution according to the logic of:

a) capitalism

b) democracy

Back 11

a) requires strict economic policy and protection of markets, property rights protected from political interference, independent regulatory authorities, central banks

b) fears capitalism overthrowing it. Gives a voice the people, less central power.

governments need to find balance with both, if one is out of balance they will lose popular support.

Front 12

What is the structure of the Davis-Moore thesis?

Back 12

• He is a functionalist so he supports the necessity of stratification in social systems
• society must do 2 things: instil desire to fulfil positions and then the desire to perform the duties of these positions
• if all positions were needed equally we would have equality but this is not the case. The rewards and their distribution become part of the social order, so giving rise to stratification.

Front 13

What does Davis-Moore mean when he says:

a) function

b) means

Back 13

a) rank of what is important for society

b) a matter of scarcity, talent or training required to perform that role

Front 14

What is functional importance?

Back 14

if a position is easily filled then the rewards need not be high, but if it is difficult to fill and it is important then this will get a high reward.

Front 15

What is differential scarcity of personnel?

Back 15

Positions require training.

High specialised jobs require lots of time, energy and money to train for that position

The acquisition of knowledge cannot be purchased but the opportunity can.

Oversupply debases rewards and outcomes

Front 16

Davis-Moore thesis

Internal factors:

Back 16

• degree of specialisation - power, prestige of position
• nature of functional emphasis - society judged what is important
• individual differences - within and between societies
• stratum or class solidarity - specific organisations to promote class interests

Front 17

Davis-Moore thesis

External factors:

Back 17

• stage of cultural development - when cultural heritage develops the degree of specialisation increases and is necessary, then contributes to enhanced mobility
• situation with respect to other societies, so presence of absence of conflict, free trade, or cultural diffusion
• size of society - small limits the degree to which functional specialisation can go

Front 18

Arguments against Davis-Moore thesis?

Back 18

• assumes necessity of stratification and that people need motivating to perform in society
• doesn't deal with real societies, highly abstract social system, idealistic
• not all qualified people are moved into the best positions
• not falsifiable, how do we decide what the most important positions are?

Front 19

What is social closure theory?

Back 19

• The greater the extent of closure characterising an occupation the higher the occupations rewards.
• An individuals economic and social interest can be advanced by their attainment of a highly ranked position in a present hierarchy and also by collective upgrading of positions in the hierarchy
• Social groups form from the positions of divided labour, this creates social and legal barriers that restricts access to resources and opportunities. This shapes the hierarchy of occupations and rewards.

Front 20

5 strategies of occupational closure?

Back 20

1. Licensing - enforced by gatekeepers, for example: to be a psychologist you need the training and the license
2. Credentials - formal education system restricts labour supply
3. Voluntary certification - to do before getting a license and doesn't restrict labour supply
4. Associated representation - don't have legal authority. Aim at improving status of workers.
5. Unionisation - have legal authority and aimed at improving status of workers also.

Front 21

Weeden's study

Back 21

• Licensing, credentialising, certification + representation have significant effects when controlled for individual characteristics
• strong effects of feminisation (nurturing skills + proportion of females in occupation)
• credentialising works for professional, managerial, technical, sales/clerical service
• licensing works for professionals
• certification works for professionals
• unionisation works for craft and operative labour

Front 22

Dimensions of social mobility?

Back 22

Social mobility is the transitioning of a person or group from one position to another

Front 23

What is vertical mobility?

Back 23

Moving up or down in ranked positions i.e. income, power, status. This is how inequality happens.

Front 24

What is horizontal mobility?

Back 24

Social cohesion or integration: moving between social positions of equal rank, between occupations

Front 25

What is inter-generational mobility?

Back 25

Within a single generation or lifetime

Front 26

What is intra-generational mobility?

Back 26

Mobility between generations

Front 27

How can we measure social mobility?

Back 27

• Look at incomes between generations and within generations, and see how it looks over time.
• absolute - look at changes in living standards and it is so if they change in absolute terms, so cannot be reversed. Also look at structural change, so technological advancements can have this effect.
• relative - look at the degree of movement in various hierarchies, i.e. wealth, income, education, occupation compared to others in the same generation. Make that person relative to the rest of the people in that generation.

Front 28

Blanden's key findings

Back 28

• US and UK inter-generational mobility is of same order and magnitude but much less mobile than Nordic countries
• Inter-generational mobility fell over time in UK. Especially when comparing 1970 babies to 1958. No similarity to US.
• Decline in relationship between family income and educational attainment. Additional opportunities to stay in school at 16 and 18 disproportionately benefited those from higher income backgrounds.
• Family income in the childhood years does make a genuine difference to educational outcomes

Front 29

What is the difference between:

a) elite prep

b) democratic uplift?

Back 29

a) elite preparation - this was started by monarchs who hoped to elevate the population, they wanted to improve their cultural level for self interest and the safety of their kingdoms. They made low level schooling compulsory.

Secondary schools developed to train the next level of elites for university education, this was to uphold aristocracy. This started in Prussia and spread through Europe.

b) democratic uplift - US is a good example of this. Public schools since 1600s were mainly associated with the poor. After American revolution there was a push for free public schools at the primary level. Secondary schools followed but required exams of fees, but then pushed for this to be free too as there were no well entrenched aristocratic system.

There was a strong belief in democracy and rights. Schooling enabled socialising of immigrants. They also wanted to teach people commerce, and there was practical training for farmers and factory workers. Also served the purpose of teaching immigrants the American culture or way of life.

Front 30

What is the correspondence theory of Bowles and Grintis?

Back 30

• the education system reproduces class relationships in capitalist systems, education in its earliest state was created to preserve and extend capitalist order
• There is a strong correspondence between the education system and the workplace:

1. the nature of authority structuresstudents lack of control over classes and workers lack of control over work processes
   
2. the role of grades and other rewards, and the role of wages in the workplace as motivation
   
3. free competition between students and similar competition between workers
   
4. the specialisation of teaching courses in school, and the career paths in the workplace
   

• education prepares people for their role in the economy
• school reproduce rather than correct inequality
• Lower class schools value discipline more, preparing for work such as factory or warehouses. Upper class schools teach freedoms and creativity for job roles such as CEOs etc.

Front 31

What is cultural capital? (Bourdieu)

Back 31

• Habitus - embodied, the way you talk, move, your posture, language etc.
• Objectified - books in your living room, the clothes you wear, the paintings you may or may not have in your house
• Institutionalised - certificates, trophies, membership cards (i.e. golf)
• Cultural knowledge and familiarity to be comfortable in an art gallery or an opera etc.
• Upper classes have more cultural capital this is taught to children in the home, not in schools

Front 32

Cultural capital as reproduction

Back 32

• Educational institutions reproduce
• Museum attendance can be correlated with level of education
• Education teaches dominant high culture, which is only accessible by those who have the necessary predispositions which come from the high class family. They are privileged to be able to act correctly in that situation.
• Reproduces high culture and marginalises those who do not have that upbringing/habitus

Front 33

Criticism of Bourdieu:

Back 33

• Too deterministic
• Ignores cultural differences and the effect of being a woman or a minority

Front 34

Nations + States in history

Back 34

• Estonia, Portugal, Poland

Front 35

What is a nation?

Back 35

People united inhabiting a particular territory

Front 36

What is a state?

Back 36

A particular territory considered as an organised political community under one government

Front 37

3 forms of citizenship rights?

Back 37

• Civil rights - individual freedoms (18thC)
• Political rights - law, organisations, self-defence, voting rights, suffragettes (19thC)
• Social rights - based on citizenship, i.e. welfare

Front 38

Types of welfare states:

Back 38

1. Nordic: social democratic, high decommodification, tax financed, universalism.

Workers independent of labour markets, social investment welfare states

Nordic countries, Slovenia, Austria, Netherlands

2. Anglo-Saxan: liberal, low decommodification, liberal legacy, tax financed.

Incentive is work to earn, social investment catch up

Belgium, UK, Ireland, France

3. Bismarckian: Christian/conservative, medium decommodification, social insurance, male breadwinners.

Women out of labour market, corporate system. Traditional hierarchies.

Romania, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria

Front 39

5 types of welfare systems:

Back 39

1. Nordic

generosity, women friendly, anti-cyclical, universalism. Service intensive, active labour market policy, proportional representation.

2. Anglo-Saxan

low benefits, needs-based, public administration, decentralised labour relations.

Passive family benefits + private services, general education, public schools, winner takes all electoral system

3. Continental

tight-link benefit and employment system, employment based social insurance,male breadwinner bias, passive labour markets policy and family policy.

Proportional representation, dual education (vocality)

4. Mediterranean

mixed Bismarck (pensions) and Bevridge (public health care).

Strong job protection, weak safety net, soft currency.

Front 40

Which type of welfare states are benefits low and social provisions means tested?

Back 40

Anglo-Saxan and continental

Front 41

Which types of welfare states make it easier to switch jobs and why?

Back 41

Nordic, because of active labour market policy and good welfare support for period of transition

Front 42

2 criticisms by feminists (of the EA model)

Back 42

1. Neglects unpaid labour done at home, and the need for domestic labour
2. Women struggle to enter labour market, and get equal chances as men
3. Western feminists commodify women

Front 43

Anglo-saxan model vs Rhineland model

Back 43

Anglo-Saxan:

• easy to hire/fire so less regulated
• short contracts
• weak trade unions
• modest unemployment benefits
• wage bargaining decentralised
• individuals responsibility important (high capitalist)

Front 44

What were the main problems in countries in the 80/90s?

Back 44

• Italy: high inflation, Sweden, France and the UK less so but still high
• UK, Czech Republic: low public spending compared to Netherlands and Sweden

Front 45

What is the 3rd way?

Back 45

In the UK

• rising child poverty problems
• welfare to work benefits (conditionally and tax credits)
• minimum wage legislation
• strong emphasis on education and ending child poverty

Decided to turn towards a children first strategy to provide the best support for all children

• early education and out of school provisions
• childcare
• health
• family support
• targeted services in disadvantaged areas and universal services (0-16 yo)
• increasing individual security and prosperity by enabling parents to work
• tackling educational and health inequalities by supporting children's healthy development and early education

Front 46

4 factors why US needed change before financial crash?

Back 46

1. job growth
2. earning quality
3. public finance
4. revolutionary rise of women in work, more skills, a cultural change
5. budgeting restraint
6. older workers still in employment

Front 47

Old risks of welfare system?

Back 47

1. unemployment
2. sickness
3. old age

Front 48

New risks of welfare system?

Back 48

1. longer lives
2. lower birth rates
3. gender role changes
4. shift to knowledge based economy

Front 49

What is the post neo-liberal paradox?

Back 49

the state government gives money to families, whilst at the same time families give money to the government through taxes. Families also put money into the market economy, and the market economy put money back into the government.

Front 50

What are the main bodies of the EU?

Back 50

1. European commission: legislation, day to day business, trade agreement budget
2. council of european union: main decision making, foreign policy
3. european parliament: voice of EU citizens, EU laws, budgets
4. court of justice: highest juridical authority
5. central bank: for the euro

Front 51

What were the main treaties?

Back 51

1. Treaty of Amsterdam 1997: separate employment chapter
2. Treaty of Lisbon 2007: social agenda policy strategy
3. Treaty of Rome 1957: founded the European economic community

Front 52

What do we mean by subsidiary principle?

Back 52

The circumstances in which it is preferable for action by EU rather than member states, i.e. a foreign policy threat

Front 53

Critical decision of the EU?

Back 53

It was a double bind

1. Member states governments bound by domestic social contract so have to comply to standing welfare commitments
2. Member states also committed to European market integration which exposes semi-sovereign welfare states to regulatory competition

This is a problem because it impinges on the basic rights, provisions and redistributive functions of national welfare states. So there is a lost national welfare policy due to market integration.

Front 54

What were the key trends of the financial crisis in 2008?

Back 54

Before the crash:

1. upward employment convergence (women/old age)
2. at risk of poverty standstill
3. pollarization "work rich" "work poor"
4. shift toward social investment - child benefits, child care, parental leave, life long learning

Front 55

Social and economic effects of financial crisis?

Back 55

1. EU jobs fell after 2008
2. employment stabilised but people worked less hours
3. inequality increased in half of EU countries
4. more equal societies withstood crisis better i.e. Denmark compared to the UK

Front 56

What welfare state was more resilient?

Back 56

Nordic, because of high social investment and emphasis on social cohesion. Also, high decommodification and job flexibility provides the support and balance during economic stress.