Research Methods

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Everyday Errors

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Four general errors in everyday reasoning can be made:
Over-generalization, selective or inaccurate observation, illogical reasoning, and resistance to change.

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Over-generalization

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an errors in reasoning, occurs when we conclude that what we have observed or what we know to be true for some cases is true for all cases.

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Selective observation

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is choosing to look only at things that align with our preferences or beliefs.
~We are more inclined to see the failings of others who are "not like us"
~If we acknowledge only the instances that confirm our predispositions, we are victims of our own selective observation.
~Our receptions do not provide a direct window to the world around us, for what we think we have sensed is not necessarily what we have seen( or heard, smelled, or tasted).

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Illogical Reasoning

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When we prematurely jump to conclusions or argue on the basis of invalid assumptions.
~Of course, logic that seems valid to one person can seem twisted to another; the problem emerges when our reasoning stems from different assumptions rather than a failure to to "think straight."

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Resistance to change

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The reluctant to change our ideas in light of new information may occur for several reasons:
~Ego based commitments
~Excessive devotion to tradition
~Uncritical agreement with authority

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Ego-based commitments

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We know how tempting it is to make statements about the social world that conform to our own needs rather than to the observable facts.
It can also be difficult to admit that we were wrong one we have staked out a position on an issue.

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Excessive devotion to tradition

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Too much devotion to tradition can stifle adaptation to changing circumstances.
When we distort our observations or alter our reasoning so that we can maintain beliefs that "were good enough for my grandfather, so they are good enough for me," we hinder our ability to accept new findings and develop new knowledge.

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Uncritical agreement with authority

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If we lack the courage to critically evaluate the ideas of those in positions of authority, we will have little basis for complaint if they exercise their authority over us in ways we do not like.
If we do not allow new discoveries to call our beliefs into question, our understanding of the social world will remain limited.

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Social science research methods can

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~Reduce the likelihood of over-generalization by using systematic procedures for selecting individuals or groups to study that are representative of the individuals or groups we wish to generalize.
~Reduce the risk of selective or inaccurate observation by requiring that we measure and sample phenomena systematically.

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Science

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A set of logical, systematic, documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes; the knowledge produces by these investigations.

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Social Science

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The use of scientific methods to investigate individuals, societies, and social processes, including questions related to criminology and criminal justice; the knowledge produced by these individuals.

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Policy motives

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Assess programs and policies to determine their
success and develop ways to improve outcomes
and better address problems

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Academic motives

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Learn more about complex social phenomena to
better understand crime and society’s response
to it

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Personal motives

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Improve society, solve a problem of personal
interest

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Descriptive research

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Defining and describing social phenomena of interest
~Police reports, surveys

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Exploratory Research

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Seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them.
~The goal is to answer the question, "What is going on here?" and to investigate social phenomena without expectations.
~Concerned with uncovering detailed information about given phenomenon, learning as much as possible about particular people or events.

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Explanatory Research

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Seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena, to predict how one phenomena will change or vary in response to variation in some other phenomena.
~General strain theory-Maintains that strain increases the likelihood that individuals will experience negative emotions, which in turn increase the likelihood of antisocial or violent behavior.
~General theory of crime- claims that lack of self control, which is primarily formed by the relationship formed by the relationship children have with their parents, is the motivating factor of crime. individuals with low self control will be more impulsive, engage in risky behavior, and more likely to pursue immediate gratification.

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Evaluation Research

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Seeks to determine the affects of social program or other types of intervention.
~ It is a type of explanatory research because it deals with cause and effect. However evaluation research differs from other forms of explanatory research because it considers the implementation and outcomes of social policies and and programs.

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Experimental approach

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Is used in criminological research. Must have three aspects: two groups (one receiving treatment and the other receiving no treatment), random assignment, an assessment of change in the outcome variable after the treatment.

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Participant observation

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Researcher who directly participates in the activity being observed. Developing a sustained relationship with a person or group and observing them while they go about their normal activities.

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Intensive interviewing

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in depth information on an individuals feelings, experiences, and perceptions

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Secondary Analysis

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Which is the reanalysis of already existing data

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Content analysis

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A researcher studies representations of the research topic in such media forms as news articles, tv shows, and radio talk shows.

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Crime mapping

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Examining the relationship between criminal behavior and other geographical space.

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Qualitative Variables

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Differ in kind rather
than degree. For example, gender, race, hair
color. Also called Discrete Variables. There
is not a mathematical or numerical difference
in the categories of qualitative variables. You
cannot say that a female is x different from a
male.

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Quantitative Variables

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Differ in degree or
magnitude. For example, age, sentence
length, intelligence. Also called Continuous
Variables.

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Triangulation

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Combining methodologies to answer a research question, or the use of multiple methods to study on research question.

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Three aspects of validity

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measurement validity, generalizability, and causal validity known as internal validity.

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Measure validity

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exist when a measure actually measures what we think it does

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Generalizability

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of a study is the extent to which it can be used to inform us about persons, places, or events that were not studied.
~Sample generalizability- exits when a conclusion based on sample, or subset, of a larger population holds true for that population.
~Cross-population generalizability (External validity)- exits when findings about one group, populations, or setting hold true for other groups, populations, or settings.

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Causal validity (internal validity)

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exist when a conclusion that A leads to or results in B is correct.

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Authenticity

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exist when the understanding of a social process of social setting is one that reflects fairly the various perspectives of participants in that setting.