Clep Intro To Educational Psychology - Rea

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Achievement Motivation

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the degree to which a person actively stives to excel in life

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Acronym

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a mnemonic device that uses the first letter of each item in a list to create a short, easily remembered concept. Acronyms are effective for learning & recalling short lists of items.

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Acrostic

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a mnemonic device that makes a sentence based on the first letter contained in a list of items to be remembered

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Algorithm

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a step-by-step process to achieve a goal or solve a problem

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Analogy

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a similarity between a new concept and a previously learned concept.

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Attention

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a conscious & selective focus on stimuli in the world to determine what is important from what is irrelevant.

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Attribution Theory

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posits that a person's behavior and motivation are determined by how the person thinks about & views the world.

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Automaticity

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the ability to perform an operation or task with very little conscious effort.

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Brainstorming

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two or more people working together to suggest all the ways they can think of to solve a problem. None of the suggestions is evaluated as a possible solution until all suggestions have been made.

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Character

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a persavie & dominant set of underlying qualities of a person reflecting a general & consistent tendency to behave in ways that are courageous, honest, responsible & respectful of the rights of others.

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Character Education Program

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a program designed to enhance character & moral development in an educational setting & to teach children how to apply this knowledge to real life.

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Chunking

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a process of combining information into larger sets that are easier to recall.

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Classical Conditioning

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the association of a neutral stimulus with an automatic response.

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Community-Based Education Program

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a program that emphasizes democratic decision-making processes in the real world of the community & the larger society, rather than merely in the classroom setting.

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Conditioned Response
(CR)

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a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

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Conditioned Stimulus
(CS)

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a previously neutral stimulus that has become repeatedly associated with a learned response.

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Contingency Contracting

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the teacher & student jointly develop a written contract specifying a set of mutually agreed-on academic and/or social behavioral goals. Rewards or consequences are given based on how well the student meets the contract terms.

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Corporal Punishment

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highly controversial behavior management approach, uses physical punishment (spanking) when the child shows unacceptable behavior.

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Culture

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the traditions, values, attitudes & perceptions of reality that guide behavior for a group of people.

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Decay

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the process of learned indormation simply fading away from memory.

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Dependent Variable

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a variable that reflects the effects of the independent variable on the participants in a study.

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Development

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the process of orderly change occurring over time to improve a person's overall adjustment to the world.

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Dual Coding Hypothesis

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during initial learning, concrete words & concepts are encoded both as visual image & verbal labels while abstract concepts are encoded only verbally

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Echoic Storage Register

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the first stage of auditory information processing with a maximum storage capacity of 4 sec. before information is either tranferred to the short term memory or lost through interference.

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Elaborative Encoding

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a characteristic of mature learners; the ability to associate new information with information that has already been learned & stored in long tem memory. Also called elaborative rehersal.

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Elective Biography

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characterizes a person's life by periods of formal education during childhood & adolescent years that culminate in gaining employment & pursuing additional education as adults. Periods of employment are sometimes interrupted by periods of unemployment because of economic downtorns & the person reenters the formal education system to acquuire new skills & reenters the workforce with a more marketable portfolio.

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Encoding

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the process of forming mental reresentations of stimuli that have been perceived through the senses, processed in the working memory & logically organized.

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Episodic Memory

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a file system in long term memory that contains personal experiences & activities.

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Experiment

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a highly controlled study done in a restricted setting with a researcher manipulating several variables or characteristics of the person or sitution to determine their impact.

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External Locus of Control

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a person's belief that regardless of what he or she does, the person has no control over his or her success or failure.

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Extinction

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the disappearance of a target behavior when the reinforcement is removed.

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Extrinsic Motivator

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a reward given to a person by someone else.

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Extrinsic Reward

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an external reward.

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Forgetting

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loss of the ability to retrieve information from memory due to interference and/or decay.

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Formative Evaluation

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an ongoing assessment that enables the teacher to determine how well students are learning & comprehending the material being taught.

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Functional Fixedness

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the inability of a person to use tools or objects creatively to solve problems.

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Gender Bias

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an individual's belief that because males & females behave differently & have different strengths & weaknesses, one gender is better than the other.

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Gender Role Identity

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the set of beliefs a person holds about the specific characteristeics associated with either feminine or masculine traits.

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General Transfer

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a concept, skill, or fact learned in one setting is applied to a new problem in a new setting that is not similar to the original

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Grammar

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a system or rules that govern how language is expresses.

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Graphic Representation

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an illustration of a problem, such as a diagram, flowchart, brief outline or a drawing of various parts of the problem using circles or other pictures.

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High Road Transfer

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applying learned rules, strategies or algorithms to new tasks & problems intentionally. This type of transfer shows when students know how the principles operate across different contexts & situations & can determine when the rule is relevent ot the new tak & how to adapt it, if necessary.

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Holophrastic Speech

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one-word speech that is uaually used to express a demand or indicate something that is wanted.

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Iconic Storage Register

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the first stage of visual information processing with a maximum storage capacity of 1 sec. before information is either transferred to the short term memory or lost thru interference.

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IDEAL Strategy

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a five step sequence to solving a problem consisting of:
1)identifying problems & opportunities
2)defining goals
3)exploring possible strategies 4)anticipating outcomes & taking action
5)looking back to learn from the strategy used.

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Identity

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the perceptions & beliefs a person holds about his or her abilities, values & priorities that motivate & focus that person's efforts & self-perception as a social being.

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Ideology of Assimilation

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an approach for cultural assimilation & bilingual education that stresses conformity & often causes students to lose their identity with their first culture, language & ethnic affiliation.

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Inclusion

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educating exceptional students in a regular educational setting while providing the appropriate supportive & educational services so the student's probability of success in increased.

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Independent Variable

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a variable that the researcher manipulates carefully to determine how changes affect people's reactions on another variable that is being measured.

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Individualized Educational Program (IEP)

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a specific curriculum & instructional plan for both regular education & special education teachers & specialists to provide the most appropriate educational experiences in a legally accountable way to help the child reach full intellectual & educational potential.

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Internal Locus of Control

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a person's belief that success or filure is the direct result of his or her own efforts & capabilities

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Internal Review Board

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a board that ensures that the methods used in a study are reasonable & appropriate & will not cause any kind of psychological or physical distress to participants.

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Intrinsic Motivator

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a reward that a person develops internally for successful preformance.

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Invincibility Fallacy

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a person's belief that he or she is not vulnerable to the kinds of bad things that happen to other people.

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Keyword

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a mnemonic memory strategy in which a part of a word is isolated & a visual image is generated to represent the keyword. This technique is useful when trying to remember the meanings of words or learning foreign words.

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Law of Effect

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theory of human learning: predicts that if behavior is followed by a satisfying change in the environment, the probability of the behavior being repeated in similar situations in the future is very high.

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Long-Term Memory

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a cognitive mechanism that has an unlimited storage capacity & creates a permanent record for information that was processed as being significant or important.

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Low-Road Transfer

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the process of automatically using a previously learned concrete skill or behavior in a new task that is very similar to the one in which the skill was first learned.

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Maintenance Rehearsal (Rote Rehearsal)

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a short-term memory device in which the person repeats information out loud or mentally in the exact form in which it was processed.

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Maturation

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the process of physical & biological change that occurs within a child as a result of the interaction between his or her genetic characteristics & the environment

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Mean

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the arithmetic average or midpoint of a distribution.

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Means-Ends Analysis

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a problem solving strategy in which the goal is defined, the present situation is clarified, an analysis is done to determine the procedures required to reduce the gap between the goal & the situation & those procedures are implemented & evaluated.

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Median

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the score at which half the sample falls above & half the sample falls below.

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Metacognition

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knowing ways to learn, remember & apply new information efficiently & effectively

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Method of Loci

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a mnemonic device that uses visual images associated with a set of well-known locations to recall large quantities of information.

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Mnemonic Device

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a memory & recall facilitator that enables a person to form associations between knowledge & information that do not naturally exist.

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Mode

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the score that occurs with greatest frequency in a distribution

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Morpheme

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the smallest meaningful unit of language

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Motivation

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a set of desires, impulses or needs that can give a person direction to behave.

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Negative Punishment

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involves removing something desirable when a person shows an undesired behavior.

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Negative Reinforcement

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involves removing something undesirable when a person shows a desired behavior.

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Negative Transfer

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previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new material.

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Neutral Stimulus

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a stimulus that is not associated with a response

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Nonroutine Problem
(Poorly Defined Problem)

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a problem with an unclear goal, so the strategies to reach the goal may be unclear or difficult to identify.

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Norm-Referenced Test

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a test in which an indidual score is interpreted by comparing it to the performance of others on the same test.

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Observational Learning

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learning to behave by observing the behaviors of others & the results of those behaviors.

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Operant Conditioning

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a perspective about learning in which all behaviors are seen to be the result of external reinforcement.

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Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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the physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in 1904 & believed that emotional disorders in humans were caused by a disturbed nervous system. Most well known for the classical conditioning model.

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Perceived Self-Efficacy

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a person's beliefs about what he or she is capable & incapable of doing.

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Perception

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a cognitive process that involves assigning meaning to newly received information based on the past knowledge & experiences of the individual.

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Phonemes

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the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of spoken words.

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Phonemic Awareness

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the ability to understand that letters & letter ccombinations create different sounds in spoken language.

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Phonology

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the process of putting different sounds or phonemes together in a systematic & meaningful way so the sound units express meaning in the form of language.

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Jean Piaget (1896-1990)

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one of the most influential contributors to understanding children's intellectual development.

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Positive Punishment

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the child is given a negative consequence because of showing inappropriate behavior.

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Positive Reinforcement

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involves the person receiving something he or she desires for behaving in an acceptable way.

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Positive Transfer

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previously learned information is used in a new situation to solve a new problem.

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Premack Principle

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teaching a child to learn by using a preferred activity to strengthern a less preferred behavior.

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Primary Reinforcer

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a reinforcer that is naturally occurring & related to survival (e.g., food, sex).

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Proactive Interference

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a process in which previously learned information interferes with a person's ability to retrieve information learned later.

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Problem Solving

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applying knowledge, skills & information to achieve a desired goal or outcome

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Procedural Memory

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one of the storage files of long-term memory that that retains knowledge about how to perform the sequence of steps needed to achieve an action or goal. .

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Productions

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the rules & knowledge stored in long-term memory that deal deal with how to do things & the steps to take for specific problems

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Public Law 94-142

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a federal statute enacted in 1975 to ensure that every exceptional learner receives an appropriate educational program that meets his or her needs & helps the student reach his or her potential as a learner.

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Punishment

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an outcome or consequence that reduces the probability of an unwanted behavior occurring again in the future.

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Range

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the difference between the highest score & the lowest score.

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Reciprocal Determinism

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a model proposed by Bandura that describes the relationships among how children behave, the environments they live in & how they see & think about their behaviors & their environments.

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Rehearsal

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retain information in short-term memory at a conscious level through verbal repttition or elaborative encoding.

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Reinforcer

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anything that increases the probability of a behavior occurring in the future.

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Reliability

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a measure of the consistency in the scores achieved on the same test for the same people who take the test on two or more different occasions.

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Response Cost System

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a behavoiral management approach in which something desirable is taken away when the child shows an undesirable behavior.

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Response Set

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the tendency of people to respond to a problem in the way they are most familiar, even though this strategy may not achieve a correct solution.

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Retroactive Interference

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a process in which newly acquired information interferes with a person's ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier.

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Routine Problem
(well defined problem)

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a problem with a clear goal so that the possible strategies to reach the goal are either known or easily developed.

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Schema (schemata)

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stores of information in the mind that describe how a person interprets the world.

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Self-Actualization

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the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

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Self-Efficacy

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a person's beliefs about personal competance & skill in a particular situation or area.

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Semantic Memory

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a file system in long-term memory that involves retention of factual knowledge & information & information & has little relation to personal experiences

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Sensory Register

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a temporary, large capacity storage mechanism that holds information as it is directly obtained from the outside world through the various senses. Information at this stage of processing is "raw", in that no meaning has been assigned to it & much of it is beyond the person's awareness.

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Simple Moral Education Program

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a program that usually occurs in a classroom setting & discusses topics such as abstinence-based sex education abortion, extramarital affairs, cheating & dishonesty.

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Burrhus Frederick Skinner
(1904-1990)

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an influential American psychologist who developed a perspective about learning based on reinforcement from the environment.

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Socioeconomic Status (SES)

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an important variable in performance, reflecting a combination of how much money the student's parents earn annually, their level of education & the jobs in which they are employed.

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Specific Transfer

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applying a fact learned in one setting to another setting that is almost identical to solve a new problem.

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Standard Biography

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a person's biography that at one time in the US consisted of going to school during childhood & adolescence to learn, become educated, followed by completion of an educational program & entrance into the world of work & culmination with retirement.

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Summative Evaluation

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assessment to determine a student's overall level of achievement so a grade can be assigned to reflect level of competence & knowledge.

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Syntax

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the grammatical structure with a sentence.

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Edward Lee Thorndike
(1874-1949)

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the first american researcher to develop a theory of human learning based on experimentation. He proposed the law of effect, which predicts that if behavior is followed by a satisfying change in the environment, the probability of that behavior being repeated in similar situations in the future is very high.

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Time-Out

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a type of negative punishment that requires memoving the student from the classroom because the teacher believes that attention from other students is reinforcing the undesirable behavior.

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Token Economy
(Token Reinforcement Program)

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a behavior management approach in which the student earns tokens for acceptable academic performance and/or social behavior. These tokens can be accumulated & exchanged for a reward(s).

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Two-Store Model

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an information processing model that describes how information is held in human memory, the various cognitive processes & actions involved in transforming information from the world into a meaningful language system & how information is tansferred from one component to the other. It consists of the sensory register, working (short-term) memory & the long-term memory.

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Unconditioned Response
(UCR or UR)

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a naturally occurring & uncontrollable response to a stimulus.

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Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS or US)

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a stimulus that automatically produces a response without the response having to be learned by the organism.

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Validity

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is a measure of the relationship between test performance & the actual behavior, trait or construct that the test claims to measure.

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Well-Formed Schemata

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mental representations that provide the person with clear, useful expectations about & comprehension or situations.

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Working Memory
(short-term memory)

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a limited capacity cognitive mechanism that can hold about 7 bits of information at a conscious level.

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Zero Transfer

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skills learned in one setting have no impact on learning new skills in a new setting

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Zone of Proximal Development
(zone of potential development)

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an element of Lev Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory of cognitive development that represents the difference between the child's abilities a child actually develops & those the child might acquire if living in the appropriate setting.