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59 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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According to Wittgenstein, we
a) have no real general concept for each category we know but instead learn each category member individually. b) assess category membership probabilistically by family resemblance. c) can find rigid features that define a category but only after intensive study. d) first encounter the prototypical member of a category, and then we compare all other potential members to it. |
b) assess category membership probabilistically by family resemblance.
Wittgenstein was the first to propose that we use category membership in a probabilistic way. |
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Family resemblance
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The notion that members of a category (e.g., all dogs, all games) resemble each other. In general, family resemblance relies on some number of features being shared by any group of category members, even though these features may not be shared by all members of the category. Therefore, the basis for family resemblance may shift from one subset of the category to another. (page 285)
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Prototype theory
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The claim that mental categories are represented by means of a single 'best example,” or prototype, identifying the 'center” of the category. In this view, decisions about category membership, and inferences about the category, are made with reference to this best example, often an average of the examples of that category that you have actually encountered. (page 287)
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Graded membership
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The idea that some members of a category are 'better” members and therefore are more firmly in the category than other members. (page 288)
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Sentence verification task
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An experimental procedure used for studying memory in which participants are given simple sentences (e.g., 'Cats are animals”) and must respond as quickly as possible whether the sentence is true or false. (page 289)
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Production task
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An experimental procedure used in studying concepts, in which the person is asked to name as many examples (e.g., as many fruits) as possible. (page 289)
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Rating task
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A task in which research participants must evaluate some item or category with reference to some dimension, usually expressing their response in terms of some number. For example, participants might be asked to evaluate birds for how typical they are within the category of 'birds,” using a '1” response to indicate 'very typical” and a '7” response to indicate 'very atypical.” (page 289)
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Basic-level categorization
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A level of categorization hypothesized as the 'natural” and most informative level, neither too specific nor too general. People tend to use basic-level terms (such as 'chair,” rather than the more general 'furniture” or the more specific 'armchair”) in their ordinary conversation and in their reasoning. (page 292)
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Heuristic
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A strategy that is reasonably efficient and works most of the time. In using a heuristic, you are in effect choosing to accept some risk of error in order to gain efficiency. (page 304)
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Proposition
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The smallest unit of knowledge that can be either true or false. Propositions are often expressed via simple sentences, but this is merely a convenience, and other modes of representation are available. (page 314)
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Local representation
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A representation in which information is encoded in some small number of identifiable nodes. Local representations are sometimes spoken of as 'one idea per node” or 'one content per location.” Often contrasted with distributed representation. (page 315)
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Connectionist networks
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See connectionism. (page 316)
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Distributed representation
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A mode of representing ideas or contents in which there is no one node (or specific group of nodes) representing the content and no one place where the content is stored. Instead, the content is represented via a pattern of simultaneous activity across many nodes. Those same nodes will also participate in other patterns, and so those same nodes will also be part of other distributed representations. Often contrasted with local representation. (page 316)
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Parallel distributed processing
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A system of handling information in which many steps happen at once (i.e., in parallel) and in which various aspects of the problem or task are represented only in a distributed fashion. (page 316)
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Connection weight
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The strength of a connection between two nodes in a network. The greater the connection weight, the more efficiently activation will flow from one node to the other. (page 317)
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Error signal
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Feedback given to a network to indicate that the network's response was not the desired one. Often the magnitude of the error signal is proportional to the difference between the response produced and the response that should have been produced. The signal can then be used to adjust the network or system (often via back propagation) so that the error will be smaller in the future. (page 318)
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Back propagation
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A learning procedure, common in connectionist networks, in which an error signal is used to adjust the inputs to a node within the network (so that the node will be less responsive in the future to the inputs that led it to the inappropriate response). The error signal is then transmitted to those same inputs, so that they can make their own similar adjustments. In this way, the error signal is transmitted backward through the network, starting with the nodes that immediately triggered the incorrect response, but with each node then passing the error signal back to the nodes that caused it to fire. (page 318)
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Which of the following facts is explained equally well by prototype and exemplar-based theories?
a) People are able to use information about a category’s variability to help judge whether a novel object belongs to that category. b) Some items appear to be more typical of a category than others. c) When people change their perspective of a category (e.g., from American birds to Chinese birds), their idea of category membership changes. d) People seem to show typicality effects for an unlimited number of categories, as demonstrated by the typical effects for completely ad hoc categories. |
b) Some items appear to be more typical of a category than others.
A typical item can be a particular exemplar (a specific example) or a prototype (an item corresponding to the ideal). |
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All of the following are evidence that theories play an important role in conceptual knowledge EXCEPT
a) people learn a new category more easily if the features are coherent. b) people learn a new category more easily if they are given a theme to explain category membership. c) once people have theories, they largely abandon the use of typicality heuristics. d) people use theories to help them stretch concepts to encompass new, atypical examples. |
c) once people have theories, they largely abandon the use of typicality heuristics.
Heuristics are always present regardless of experience and the use of theories. |
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All of the following are true about explanatory theories EXCEPT they
a) provide a crucial knowledge base we rely on to think about a particular category. b) serve the same function as a scientist’s theory, though they are less precise. c) are only useful in providing a cause-and-effect understanding if they are accurate. d) can increase the ease with which we can learn a new category. |
c) are only useful in providing a cause-and-effect understanding if they are accurate.
Explanatory theories can be inaccurate even though they make sense. |
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5Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a) When asked to describe an object, people are likely to choose the most general term for that object first. b) People tend to remember more general terms (“pants”) when they have heard very specific terms (“jeans”). c) People tend to remember more specific terms (“dog”) when they have heard very general terms (“animal”). d) Basic-level terms can usually be referred to in English using a single word, whereas more specific terms often require two or three words. |
a) When asked to describe an object, people are likely to choose the most general term for that object first.
A basic level term is used more often for describing items. This is neither too general nor too specific. |
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All of the following are problems for the prototype and exemplar accounts of categorization EXCEPT
a) participants know that the definition of an even number is absolute, but they still give even numbers different ratings of evenness. b) an orange that has been flattened, painted with brown and red stripes, and covered with coconut flakes is still identified as an orange. c) participants’ ratings of membership in a novel category change with experience. d) a counterfeit $20 bill can look identical to a real $20 bill but is not considered money. |
c) participants’ ratings of membership in a novel category change with experience.
Both prototypes and exemplar theories would reflect change as more items are encountered through experience. |
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In a production task, the _______ category members that a person mentions are also the category members that produce the fastest reaction times in a sentence-verification task.
a) first b) last c) loudest d) slowest |
a) first
These tend to be the basic level category members in both production and the sentence verification task. |
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Which of the following claims is FALSE?
a) Reliance on prototypes is likely to emerge gradually as a participant’s experience with a category grows. b) People are likely to rely strongly on exemplars early in their exposure to a particular category. c) Once people rely on prototypes, they no longer use exemplars for judging category membership. d) With exposure to many instances of a particular category, it becomes more difficult to remember each particular instance, and this contributes to the emergence of a prototype. |
c) Once people rely on prototypes, they no longer use exemplars for judging category membership.
Both prototypes and exemplars can be used. |
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TRUE OR FALSE: Reliance on prototypes is likely to emerge gradually as a participant’s experience with a category grows. |
TRUE |
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TRUE OR FALSE: People are likely to rely strongly on exemplars early in their exposure to a particular category. |
TRUE |
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TRUE OR FALSE: With exposure to many instances of a particular category, it becomes more difficult to remember each particular instance, and this contributes to the emergence of a prototype. |
TRUE |
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When people are asked to rate how much “oddness” different odd numbers have, they
a) rate the numbers all the same, because there is a clearly defined category boundary for odd numbers. b) rate some odd numbers as more “odd” than others, but these ratings are quite inconsistent from one participant to the next. c) are consistent with each other in which odd numbers they consider more odd. d) refuse to do the task because it does not make any sense. |
c) are consistent with each other in which odd numbers they consider more odd.
People tend to rate single digit numbers as most odd and are very consistent at doing so. |
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In a standard sentence-verification task, which of the following sentences would produce the SLOWEST response time?
a) A peach is a fruit. b) An apple is a fruit. c) A robin is a bird. d) A bat is a bird. |
d) A bat is a bird.
This would be the slowest because it would require the reader to trace a path from one basic category to a different superordinate category. |
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Which of the following is NOT true about heuristics?
a) One way to ensure error-free decisions is to use the typicality heuristic. b) One example of a heuristic is categorization via resemblance. c) The categorization heuristic emphasizes superficial characteristics. d) Using heuristics is an efficient way to get things done. |
a) One way to ensure error-free decisions is to use the typicality heuristic.
Heuristics sacrifice efficiency for accuracy. They are not error free. |
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Which of the following is NOT an attribute of the prototype theory?
a) fuzzy boundaries b) graded membership c) defining features d) inequality of category members |
c) defining features
Prototype theory is based on an ideal member. |
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Research suggests that you usually rely on _______ to aid in categorization of an unfamiliar concept. In contrast, for a highly familiar concept, you are more likely to rely on _______ to aid in categorization.
a) exemplars; prototypes b) prototypes; exemplars c) exemplars; both prototypes and exemplars d) both prototypes and exemplars; exemplars alone |
c) exemplars; both prototypes and exemplars
When you first learn about a category you use exemplars. However, as you acquire more experience you can use exemplars and prototypes. |
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Do you use exemplars or prototypes when you first learn about a category? |
Exemplars |
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Which of the following examples illustrates how category typicality and judgments of category membership usually go together?
a) A painted, sugar-infused lemon that has been run over by a truck is still considered a lemon. b) A perfect counterfeit bill that shares all the features of real money is rejected as payment. c) A German shepherd is recognized to have all of the features typical of a dog and is quickly recognized as such. d) Children accept the notion that a toaster can be changed into a coffeepot, but not that a skunk can be changed into a raccoon. |
c) A German shepherd is recognized to have all of the features typical of a dog and is quickly recognized as such.
A German Shephard is actually a typical dog. The other three answers rely on other processes rather than on typicality. |
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Which approach best explains knowledge of variability and distinctions within a category?
a) exemplars b) prototypes c) definitions d) theories |
a) exemplars
Exemplars by definition carry variability since they rely on instances. |
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Research shows that children are willing to make suggestions about how to turn a toaster into a coffee pot but deny the possibility of turning a skunk into a raccoon. This is evidence that
a) category membership and typicality ratings can diverge. b) category membership depends on decisions about which features are essential to the category. c) our use of categories is dictated by typicality. d) children and adults have radically different understandings of categorization. |
b) category membership depends on decisions about which features are essential to the category.
Essential features are those that cannot be changed and hence items with these features cannot be changed. |
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Essential features in a category are |
are those that cannot be changed and hence items with these features cannot be changed.
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these type of category features cannot be changed. |
Essential features |
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Which of the following facts fits LEAST well with the claims of prototype theory?
a) Pictures of items similar to the prototype are identified as category members more quickly than pictures of items less similar to the prototype. b) Items close to the prototype are the earliest (and most likely) to be mentioned in a production task. c) When making up sentences about a category, people tend to create sentences most appropriate for the prototype of that category, as opposed to a more peripheral member. d) Even when an item is quite different from a category’s prototype, it is very easy for people to decide whether it is inside or outside the boundaries of the category. |
d) Even when an item is quite different from a category’s prototype, it is very easy for people to decide whether it is inside or outside the boundaries of the category.
The prototype defines the center of a category. If people can still decide if an item belongs to a category even when it is different from the prototype then it suggests that people must be using some other process to make decisions about categories. |
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The prototype of a category defines ______ |
The CENTER of a category |
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Is used to define the center of a catagory |
a prototype |
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Which of the following is true?
a) People only use prototypes when there are no clear definitions to fall back on. b) Just because people use prototypes does not mean that is the only information available to them. c) People use exemplars rather than prototypes whenever possible. d) Clearly defined category boundaries are necessary for deciding category membership. |
b) Just because people use prototypes does not mean that is the only information available to them.
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True or False:People only use prototypes when there are no clear definitions to fall back on. |
False |
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TRUE OR FALSE:People use exemplars rather than prototypes whenever possible. |
FALSE |
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TRUE OR FALSE: Clearly defined category boundaries are necessary for deciding category membership. |
FALSE |
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Which of the following provide(s) us with an understanding of cause and effect?
a) fuzzy boundaries b) prototype theory c) exemplar theory d) explanatory theories |
d) explanatory theories
Explanatory theories are more complex and hence allow us to think about cause and effect. |
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MORE COMPLEX THEORIES THAT ALLOW US TO CONSDIER CAUSE AND EFFECT |
EXPLANATORY THEORIES |
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Many people think of a drum as the prototypical percussion instrument. Given this, which of the following results is MOST likely?
a) The statement, “chimes are percussion instruments,” will be verified more quickly than “drums are percussion instruments.” b) When asked to create sentences about percussion instruments, participants frequently say things like, “I heard a percussion instrument chiming.” c) When people are asked which of two instruments is “more percussiony,” they will choose the drum, if it is an option. d) When two types of instruments are within the category of percussion instruments, they will be treated equally. |
c) When people are asked which of two instruments is “more percussiony,” they will choose the drum, if it is an option.
The prototype is more often chosen as an item for a particular category. |
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The idea that we categorize objects based on their similarity to previously stored instances is known as
a) geometric theory. b) prototype theory. c) feature theory. d) exemplar theory. |
d) exemplar theory.
Exemplars are particular instances in which we have encountered an item. |
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PARTICULAR INSTANCES WHERE WE HAVE ENCOUNTERED AN OBJECT. |
EXEMPLARS |
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Compared with nonexperts, experts in a particular field will
a) pay less attention to the relationships between categories. b) have more complex explanatory theories. c) base categories solely on appearance. d) rely particularly strongly on exemplars. |
b) have more complex explanatory theories.
Experts have acquired much experience and hence will have more explanatory theories in order to cover the large amount of information they have accumulated. |
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Which of the following is NOT true about Rosch’s prototype theory of category membership?
a) Judgments about an item are made with reference to either the ideal or the average of that category. b) In this theory, the boundaries of the category are specified, rather than the center of the category. c) Items that more closely resemble the prototype are perceived to be “better” members of the category than other items. d) The prototype for a certain category may vary from person to person. |
b) In this theory, the boundaries of the category are specified, rather than the center of the category.
Prototypes refer to the ideal item in a category and thus define the center and not the borders of the category. |
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Which of the following is MOST likely to cause you to draw an inference about a category of animal?
a) information about an atypical member of that category b) information about a category of animal higher up in the food chain than one you are considering c) a theory about how a feature you have seen in one member of the category might be caused by a feature that all category members share d) information about a characteristic shared by two members of the category who are quite similar to each other |
c) a theory about how a feature you have seen in one member of the category might be caused by a feature that all category members share
A theory that involves all members is most likely to lead a person to draw an inference.
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WHEN IS A PERSON MORE LIKELY TO DRAW AN INFERENCE ABOUT A CATEGORY. |
WHEN A THEORY INVOLVES ALL MEMBERS OF THAT CATEGORY. |
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Which of the following is NOT true of people’s reasoning about natural kinds and artifacts?
a) People tend to assume more homogeneity when reasoning about natural kinds than about artifacts. b) The way people reason about natural kinds will be influenced by their level of expertise regarding those kinds. c) People think that tables can be transformed into chairs but cats cannot be transformed into dogs. d) People tend to assume that the properties of artifacts are more predictable than properties of natural kinds. |
d) People tend to assume that the properties of artifacts are more predictable than properties of natural kinds.
Actually people are more likely to think that properties of natural kinds are more predictable and fixed. |
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TRUE OR FALSE:People tend to assume more homogeneity when reasoning about natural kinds than about artifacts. |
TRUE |
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TRUE OR FALSE: The way people reason about natural kinds will be influenced by their level of expertise regarding those kinds.
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TRUE |
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People think that tables can be transformed into chairs but cats cannot be transformed into dogs is an example of a difference between what two concepts?
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artifacts vs natural kinds |
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TRUE OR FALSE: people are more likely to think that properties of natural kinds are more predictable and fixed.
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TRUE - AN ARTIFACT CAN HAVE MANY CONTEXT DEPENDENT USES, BUT A NATURAL KIND HAS ESSENTIAL FEATURES THAT MAKE IT PART OF A PARTICULAR CATEGORY. |
