Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
208 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
|
Information processing
|
A particular approach to theorizing in which complex mental events, such as learning, remembering, and deciding, are understood as being built up out of a large number of discrete steps. These steps occur one by one, with each providing as its 'output” the input to the next step in the sequence. (page 165)
|
|
|
|
Modal model
|
A nickname for a specific conception of the 'architecture” of memory. In this model, working memory serves both as the storage site for material now being contemplated and as the 'loading platform” for long-term memory. Information can reach working memory through the processes of perception, or it can be drawn from long-term memory. Once in working memory, material can be further processed, or it can simply be recycled for subsequent use. This model encouraged a large quantity of valuable research, but has now largely been set aside, with modern theorizing offering a very different conception of working memory. (page 165)
|
|
|
|
Long-term memory (LTM)
|
The storage system in which we hold all of our knowledge and all of our memories. Long-term memory contains memories that are not currently activated; those that are activated are represented in working memory. (page 166)
|
|
|
|
Free recall
|
A method of assessing memory. The person being tested is asked to come up with as many items as possible from a particular source (such as 'the list you heard earlier” or 'things you saw yesterday”), in any sequence. (page 167)
|
|
|
|
Primacy effect
|
An often-observed advantage in remembering the early-presented materials within a sequence of materials. This advantage is generally attributed to the fact that you can focus attention on these items, simply because, at the beginning of a sequence, you are obviously not trying to divide attention between these items and other items in the series. Often contrasted with recency effect. (page 167)
|
|
|
|
Recency effect
|
The tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. If the series was just presented, the recency effect can be attributed to the fact that these late-arriving items are still in working memory (simply because nothing else has arrived after these items, to bump them out of working memory). (page 167)
|
|
|
|
Serial position
|
A data pattern summarizing the relationship between some performance measure (often, likelihood of recall) and the order in which the test materials were presented. In memory studies, the serial position curve tends to be U-shaped, with people best able to recall the first-presented items (the primacy effect) and also the last-presented items (the recency effect). (page 167)
|
|
|
|
Memory rehearsal
|
Any mental activity that has the effect of maintaining information in working memory. Two types of rehearsal are often distinguished: maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. (page 168)
|
|
|
|
Digit-span task
|
A task often used for measuring working memory's storage capacity. Research participants are read a series of digits (e.g., '8 3 4”) and must immediately repeat them back. If they do this successfully, they are given a slightly longer list (e.g., '9 2 4 0”), and so forth. The length of the longest list a person can remember in this fashion is that person's digit span. Also see operation span. (page 172)
|
|
|
|
7 plus-or-minus 2
|
A number often offered as an estimate of the holding capacity of working memory. (page 173)
|
|
|
|
Chunk
|
The hypothetical storage unit in working memory; it is estimated that working memory can hold 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks. An unspecified quantity of information can be contained within each chunk, since the content of each chunk depends on how the memorizer has organized the materials to be remembered. (page 173)
|
|
|
|
Operation span
|
A measure of working memory's capacity. This measure turns out to be predictive of performance in many other tasks, presumably because these tasks all rely on working memory. This measure is also the modern replacement for the (less useful) measure obtained from the digit-span task. (page 175)
|
|
|
|
Maintenance rehearsal
|
A rote, mechanical process in which items are continually cycled through working memory, merely by being repeated over and over. Also called 'item-specific rehearsal,” and often contrasted with elaborative rehearsal. (page 178)
|
|
|
|
Relational rehearsal
|
A form of mental processing in which you think about the relations, or connections, among ideas. The connections created (or strengthened) in this way will later guide memory search. (page 179)
|
|
|
|
Elaborative rehearsal
|
A way of engaging materials to be remembered, such that you pay attention to what the materials mean and how they are related to each other, or to other things in the surroundings, or to other things you already know. Often contrasted with maintenance rehearsal. (page 179)
|
|
|
|
Rehearsal loop =
|
ARTICULATORY REHERSAL LOOP |
|
|
|
Intentional learning
|
The acquisition of memories in a setting in which people know that their memory for the information will be tested later. Often contrasted with incidental learning. (page 182)
|
|
|
|
Incidental learning
|
Learning that takes place in the absence of any intention to learn and, correspondingly, in the absence of any expectation of a subsequent memory test. Often contrasted with intentional learning. (page 182)
|
|
|
|
Shallow processing
|
A mode of thinking about material in which you pay attention only to appearances and other superficial aspects of the material; shallow processing typically leads to poor memory retention. Often contrasted with deep processing. (page 182)
|
|
|
|
Deep processing
|
A mode of thinking in which you pay attention to the meaning and implications of the material; deep processing typically leads to excellent memory retention. Often contrasted with shallow processing. (page 182)
|
|
|
|
Level of processing
|
An assessment of how 'deeply” newly learned materials are engaged; shallow processing involves thinking only about the material's superficial traits; deep processing involves thinking about what the material means. Deep processing is typically associated with a greater probability of remembering the now-processed information. (page 183)
|
|
|
|
Retrieval path
|
A connection (or series of connections) that can lead to a sought-after memory in long-term storage. (page 187)
|
|
|
|
Mnemonic strategy
|
A technique designed to improve memory accuracy and to make learning easier; in general, mnemonic strategies seek in one fashion or another to help memory by imposing an organization on the materials to be learned. (page 188)
|
|
|
|
Peg-word systems
|
A type of mnemonic strategy using words or locations as 'pegs” on which to 'hang” the materials to be remembered. (page 189)
|
|
|
|
Someone with a larger working memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working memory capacity on all of the following tasks EXCEPT
a) following directions b) efficient reading c) learning a computer language d) discriminating shapes |
d) discriminating shapes
Shape recognition only involves temporal lobe regions and hence is not determined by working-memory capacity, which involves frontal lobe function. |
|
|
|
shape recognition involves only _________ regions of the brain |
temporal lobe regions |
|
|
|
working memory involves ___________ region of the brain |
frontal lobe |
|
|
|
Which group would perform the BEST on a memory test?
a) Participants engaged in shallow processing without previous warning of a memory test. b) Participants engaged in medium processing with previous warning of a memory test. c) Participants engaged in deep processing without previous warning of a memory test. d) Participants engaged in shallow processing with previous warning of a memory test. |
c) Participants engaged in deep processing without previous warning of a memory test.
Depth of processing is stronger than intention. Hence, the person engaged in deep processing will remember best. |
|
|
|
Which event will affect working memory performance during a free-recall task?
a) having participants count backward by threes for 30 seconds before recalling the list b) using more familiar or common words c) delaying the recall for a few seconds after the list end (with no interpolated activity) d) slowing down the presentation of the list |
a) having participants count backward by threes for 30 seconds before recalling the list
Counting backward is the only task that will occupy working memory since it is an effortful task. |
|
|
|
Long-term memory is to working memory as _______ is to _______.
a) an open file on your computer; the monitor on your computer b) a printed copy of a file; a file stored on a CD c) a keyboard on your computer; the cursor on your computer d) a file stored on a hard drive; an open document you are working on |
d) a file stored on a hard drive; an open document you are working on
Things on your hard drive are permanent, whereas an open document is temporary, just like long-term and working memory, respectively. |
|
|
|
Scores on which task show the strongest correlation with reading comprehension and reasoning tasks?
a) a standard measure of digit span b) operation span c) score on a free-recall task d) ability to chunk numbers |
b) operation span
Operation span is the only measure of working memory among these alternatives. |
|
|
|
According to the modal model, all of the following are true EXCEPT
a) new information moves from one information-processing component to the next. b) short-term memory's size can be expanded with sufficient practice. c) incoming information goes through early analysis and short-term memory on the path to long-term memory. d) memory takes place in a series of discrete steps. |
b) short-term memory's size can be expanded with sufficient practice.
Short-term memory is fixed at 7 items. |
|
|
|
Which of the following types of processing for a target word will probably lead to the BEST memory performance?
a) Noting whether the letters are upper-case or lower-case. b) Generating a sentence that uses the target word. c) Repeating the word over and over while trying very hard to memorize it. d) Thinking of a list of words that rhyme with the target word. |
b) Generating a sentence that uses the target word.
This task involves having to create a complex elaborative context that is more likely to increase memory. |
|
|
|
The short-term storage of verbal materials is often supported by the rehearsal loop. The short-term storage of mental images is accomplished by _______.
a) the operation span b) the visual-cortex loop c) the visuospatial buffer d) perseveration |
c) the visuospatial buffer
The visuospatial buffer is the part of working memory dedicated to memory of visual and spatial information, which is key for mental images. |
|
|
|
VISUOSPATIAL BUFFER |
ONE OF THE LOW LEVEL ASSISTANTS USED AS PART OF THE WORKING MEMORY SYSTEM THIS BUFFER PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN STORING VISUAL OR SPATIAL REPRESENTATIONS, INCLUDING VISUAL IMAGES |
|
|
|
PART OF THE WORKING MEMORY SYSTEM THAT PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN STORING VISUAL OR SPATIAL REPRESENTATIONS. INCLUDING VISUAL IMAGES |
VISUOSPATIAL BUFFER |
|
|
|
PERSERVERATION ERROR |
A PATTERN OF RESPONDING IN WHICH THE SAME RESPONSE IS PRODUCED OVER AND OVER EVEN THOUGH YOU KNOW THE TASK REQUIRES A CHANGE IN RESPONSE. THIS PATTERN IS OFTEN OBSERVED IN PATIENTS WITH DAMAGE TO THE FRONTAL LOBE. |
|
|
|
A PATTERN OF RESPONDING IN WHICH THE SAME RESPONSE IS PRODUCED OVER AND OVER EVEN THOUGH YOU KNOW THE TASK REQUIRES A CHANGE IN RESPONSE. THIS PATTERN IS OFTEN OBSERVED IN PATIENTS WITH DAMAGE TO THE FRONTAL LOBE.
|
PERSERVERATION ERROR |
|
|
|
A PERSERVERATION ERROR IS MOST OFTEN OBSERVED IN PATIENTS WITH DAMAGE TO WHAT AREA OF THE BRAIN |
FRONTAL LOBE |
|
|
|
What causes the primacy effect?
a) The last words heard are still in working memory at testing. b) The first words heard are also the first words to leave working memory. c) Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory. d) Experimenters tend to give easier words first as warm-up. |
c) Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory.
The first words are maintained in working memory for a longer period of time and eventually encoded into long-term memory. |
|
|
|
Which event will improve long-term memory performance during a free-recall task?
a) Having participants count backward by threes for 30 seconds before recalling the list. b) Delaying the recall for a few seconds after the list end (with no interpolated activity). c) Using words that all have similar sounds (like bay, day, gray, etc.). d) Slowing down the presentation of the list. |
d) Slowing down the presentation of the list.
Slowing down the presentation rate allows more time for each word to be rehearsed and hence increases the likelihood it will be transferred to long-term memory. |
|
|
|
Maintenance rehearsal is:
a) an efficient and effective way to enter information into long-term memory. b) well suited for delayed recall, but only if you knew were going to be tested. c) poorly suited for delayed recall, even if you knew you would be tested. d) not very efficient, but if done for long enough it will be effective at promoting memory. |
c) poorly suited for delayed recall, even if you knew you would be tested.
Maintenance rehearsal involves simple repetition and does not effectively increase long-term retention. |
|
|
|
Veronica wanted to go to the grocery store but was out of paper for writing a shopping list. She came up with several possible ways to remember what she needed to buy (listed below). Which of her ideas is NOT a simple mnemonic strategy?
a) Using the peg-word system to associate different items on the shopping list with words in an easy-to-remember rhyme. b) Imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like. c) Imagining her drive to school and associating items on the list with prominent landmarks she passes every day. d) Using the first-letter technique to make a word or phrase composed of the first letter of each item from the list. |
b) Imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like. This is actually an elaborative rehearsal strategy in which she is adding meaning to the information. Mnemonics are complex organizational schemes for learning. |
|
|
|
|
ELABORATIVE REHERSAL STRATEGY |
|
|
|
ARTICULATORY REHERSAL LOOP |
ONE OF THE LOW LEVEL ASSISTANTS TO WORKING MEMORY. THIS LOOP DRAWS ON SUBVOCALIZED (COVERT) SPEECH, WHICH SERVES TO CREATE A RECORD IN THE PHONOLOGICAL BUFFER. MATERIALS IN THIS BUFFER FADE, BUT CAN BE REFRESHED BY ANOTHER CYCLE OF COVERT SPEECH |
|
|
|
ONE OF THE LOW LEVEL ASSISTANTS TO WORKING MEMORY. THIS LOOP DRAWS ON SUBVOCALIZED (COVERT) SPEECH, WHICH SERVES TO CREATE A RECORD IN THE PHONOLOGICAL BUFFER. MATERIALS IN THIS BUFFER FADE, BUT CAN BE REFRESHED BY ANOTHER CYCLE OF COVERT SPEECH
|
ARTICULATORY REHERSAL LOOP |
|
|
|
ARTICULATORY REHERSAL LOOP = |
REHERSAL LOOP |
|
|
|
All of the following statements accurately describe the effects of mnemonics EXCEPT:
a) Mnemonics can impose organization on a list that does not have its own intrinsic organization. b) Mnemonics facilitate multiple connections between new material and prior knowledge. c) Mnemonics can help to recall, not only items, but also their serial order in the list. d) Mnemonics can be detrimental if you wish to have many retrieval paths to the information. |
b) Mnemonics facilitate multiple connections between new material and prior knowledge.
|
|
|
|
Why does elaborative encoding facilitate recall?
a) It provides many potential retrieval paths. b) It occurs more quickly than shallow processing. c) It evokes fewer memory connections. d) It is more likely to be evoked by simple sentences than by complex ones. |
a) It provides many potential retrieval paths.
Multiple retrieval paths are the key to deep processing, which increases long-term retention. |
|
|
|
The holding capacity of working memory is often said to be _______.
a) 7 digits b) 7 chunks c) 15 digits d) 15 chunks |
b) 7 chunks
The answer is 7 chunks since one thing could be made up of multiple things. |
|
|
|
Which does NOT describe a cost of chunking?
a) The more effort spent on reorganizing material into more manageable or easier units, the less attention is available for holding the material in working memory. b) A participant is engaging the information in a relatively superficial fashion when chunking. c) Chunking at the time of acquisition is dependent on knowledge that you already have. d) A subject might remember extra, incorrect information that he himself added in order to facilitate recall. |
b) A participant is engaging the information in a relatively superficial fashion when chunking.
Chunking involves repackaging of information, which is necessarily an effortful and deep form of processing. |
|
|
|
WHAT LEVEL OF PROCESSING IS CHUNKING? |
DEEP |
|
|
|
Which is of the following is MOST effective for long-term retention?
a) peg-word learning b) imagery c) maintenance rehearsal d) elaborative rehearsal |
d) elaborative rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal is the most effective for remembering because it involves adding meaning to the encoding process. |
|
|
|
WHY IS ELABORATIVE REHERSAL SO EFFECTIVE? |
Elaborative rehearsal is the most effective for remembering because it involves adding meaning to the encoding process.
|
|
|
|
Which of the following would help improve recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph the LEAST?
a) quizzing yourself in order to improve comprehension of the paragraph b) chunking the sentences in the paragraph into smaller, meaningful groups c) repeating the paragraph aloud many times d) giving the paragraph a meaningful title |
c) repeating the paragraph aloud many times
This option is reliant on maintenance rehearsal, which is the least favorable way to learn material. |
|
|
|
What is an advantage of trying to learn something using deep (meaning-related) processing rather than strategies like mnemonics?
a) It helps keep track of the order of learned items. b) It is better at preventing "remembering" details that were never actually present but fit with the meaning of the items. c) It creates more retrieval paths for the memory. d) It relies less on having background knowledge about the topic being learned. |
c) It creates more retrieval paths for the memory.
|
|
|
|
In using the rehearsal loop, the central executive is directly involved in the step of
a) subvocalizing the items in the list to be remembered. b) planning the end-goal of the rehearsal. c) transferring items into the phonological buffer. d) storing visual information, such as mental images. |
b) planning the end-goal of the rehearsal.
Planning and goal directed behavior is the main responsibility of the central executive. |
|
|
|
PLANNING AND GOAL DIRECTED BEHAVIOR IS THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY OF |
THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE |
|
|
|
THE MAIN RESPONSIBILITY OF THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE IS |
PLANNING AND GOAL DIRECTED BEHAVIOR |
|
|
|
What factor about a person will BEST predict ability to memorize complex information about biology?
a) previous related biology knowledge b) performance on a digit span task c) intention to learn the information d) amount of time spent trying to learn the information |
a) previous related biology knowledge
Previous knowledge on a topic is likely to help the ability to form new long-term memories. |
|
|
|
Which statement about working memory is FALSE?
a) It has a limited storage capacity. b) It functions mainly as a storage container. c) Information in it is fragile and easily lost. d) It refers mainly to the resources that make up the central executive and its helpers. |
b) It functions mainly as a storage container.
Working memory is dynamic and hence is not simply a storage container. |
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: WORKING MEMORY HAS A LIMITED STORAGE CAPACITY |
TRUE 7 +/- 2 CHUNKS |
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: WORKING MEMORY REFERS MAINLY TO THE RESOURCES THAT MAKE UP THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE AND ITS HELPERS |
TRUE |
|
|
|
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE |
THE DIRECTOR OF THE WORKING MEMORY SYSTEM. THE COMPONENT NEEDED FOR ANY INTERPRETATION OR ANALYSIS IN CONTRAST, MERE STORAGE OF MATERIALS CAN BE PROVIDED BY THE WM ASSISTANTS |
|
|
|
EXECUTIVE CONTROL |
THE MENTAL RESOURCES AND PROCESSES USED TO SET GOALS, CHOOSE TASK PRIORITIES, AND AVOID CONFLICT AMONG COMPETING HABITS OR RESPONSES. |
|
|
|
THE MENTAL RESOURCES AND PROCESSES USED TO SET GOALS, CHOOSE TASK PRIORITIES, AND AVOID CONFLICT AMONG COMPETING HABITS OR RESPONSES.
|
EXECUTIVE CONTROL |
|
|
|
THE DIRECTOR OF THE WORKING MEMORY SYSTEM. THE COMPONENT NEEDED FOR ANY INTERPRETATION OR ANALYSIS
|
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE |
|
|
|
MERE STORAGE OF MATERIALS CAN BE PROVIDED BY |
WORKING MEMORY'S ASSISTANTS |
|
|
|
An individual suffering with smaller working memory would be LEAST likely to exhibit which of the following behaviors?
a) successfully identifying her mother's face in a collection of photos b) copying a drawing of a face in a piecemeal, disorganized fashion c) perseverating in his method of sorting cards after being told to switch strategies d) taking an alternative route to school after learning about a traffic jam on the traditional route |
d) taking an alternative route to school after learning about a traffic jam on the traditional route Because a person with small working memory cannot keep as much in their mind they are unable to consider multiple alternatives as well. |
|
|
|
Which of the following is a FALSE statement about the memory strategy of "chunking"?
a) Practice with chunking can greatly increase the actual size of an individual's working memory. b) Chunking does have a downside: items can be misremembered because they are often altered in some way as part of the chunking process. c) Some individuals can create very big chunks, enabling them to recall over 50 numbers in order. d) The increased processing required for chunking leaves less attention available for other tasks. |
a) Practice with chunking can greatly increase the actual size of an individual's working memory.
Chunking does not increase working memory. It simply changes the size of the items that can be placed in working memory. |
|
|
|
In order to memorize new information, you
|
you form connections between this information and things you already know.
|
|
|
|
in order to memorize new information, you form connections between this information and things you already know.
This indicates what about stages of memory |
the acquisition stage is intertwined with the retrieval of information already in storage.
|
|
|
|
attention to meaning = |
deep processing |
|
|
|
if we are using deep processing we are paying attention to |
meaning |
|
|
|
are mnenomics deep, intermediate, or shallow level of processing? |
Deep because they make connections to information we already have (songs, words, etc) and information we want to memorize |
|
|
|
SPREADING ACTIVATION |
A PROCESS THROUGH WHICH ACTIVATION TRAVELS FROM ONE NODE TO ANOTHER VIA ASSOCIATIVE LINKS. AS EACH NODE BECOMES ACTIVATED, IT SERVES AS A SOURCE FOR FURTHER ACTIVATION TO SPREAD THROUGH THE NETWORK |
|
|
|
A PROCESS THROUGH WHICH ACTIVATION TRAVELS FROM ONE NODE TO ANOTHER VIA ASSOCIATIVE LINKS. AS EACH NODE BECOMES ACTIVATED, IT SERVES AS A SOURCE FOR FURTHER ACTIVATION TO SPREAD THROUGH THE NETWORK
|
SPREADING ACTIVATION |
|
|
|
ASSOCIATIONS |
FUNCTIONAL CONNECTIONS THAT LINK NODES WITHIN A MENTAL NETWORK OR DETECTORS WITHIN A DETECTOR NETWORK. ASSOCIATIONS CARRY ACTIVATION FROM ONE NODE/DETECTOR TO THE NEXT |
|
|
|
___________ CARRY ACTIVATIONS FROM ONE NODE/DETECTOR TO THE NEXT ON THE NETWORK |
ASSOCIATIONS |
|
|
|
ROLE OF ASSOCIATIONS IN A MENTAL NETWORK |
CARRY ACTIVATIONS FROM ONE NODE/DETECTOR TO THE NEXT ON THE NETWORK. |
|
|
|
DETECTOR |
NODE WITHIN A PROCESSING NETWORK THAT FIRES IN RESPONSE TO A TARGET CONTAINED WITHIN THE INCOMING PERCEPTUAL INFORMATION |
|
|
|
NODE WITHIN A PROCESSING NETWORK THAT FIRES IN RESPONSE TO A TARGET CONTAINED WITHIN THE INCOMING PERCEPTUAL INFORMATION
|
DETECTOR |
|
|
|
IN A SCHEME OF LOCAL REPRESENTATION A NODE |
REPRESENTS A SIGNLE IDEA OR CONCEPT |
|
|
|
IN A SCHEME OF DISTRIBUTED REPRESENTATION A NODE REPRESENTS |
IDEAS OR CONTENTS ACROSS A WIDE PATTERN OF NODAL ACTIVATION. |
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: THE SAME NODES CAN PARTICIPATE IN MORE THAN ONE PATTERN AND REPRESENTATION |
TRUE |
|
|
|
LOCAL REPRESENTATION |
THE IDEA THAT INFO IS ENCODED IN SOME SMALL NUMBER OF IDENTIFIABLE NODES. ONE IDEA PER NODE OR ONE CONTENT PER LOCATION |
|
|
|
THE IDEA THAT INFO IS ENCODED IN SOME SMALL NUMBER OF IDENTIFIABLE NODES. ONE IDEA PER NODE OR ONE CONTENT PER LOCATION
|
LOCAL REPRESENTATION |
|
|
|
DISTRIBUTED REPRESENTATION |
IDEAS OR CONTENTS WHERE NO ONE NODE OR GROUP OF NODES REPRESENTS OR STORES THE CONTENTS. A PATTERN OF SIMULTANEOUS ACTIVITY ACROSS MANY NODES |
|
|
|
IDEAS OR CONTENTS WHERE NO ONE NODE OR GROUP OF NODES REPRESENTS OR STORES THE CONTENTS.
A PATTERN OF SIMULTANEOUS ACTIVITY ACROSS MANY NODES |
DISTRIBUTED REPRESENTATION |
|
|
|
In general, the chances that someone will remember an earlier event are greatest if
|
the physical and mental circumstances in place during memory retrieval match those in place during learnin
|
|
|
|
refers to the idea that you usually learn more than the specific material to be remembered itself; you also learn that material within its associated context.
|
ENCODING SPECIFICITY |
|
|
|
An individual node becomes activated when
|
it receives enough of an input signal to raise its activation level to its response threshold
|
|
|
|
Hints are effective
|
because the target node can receive activation from two sources simultaneously—from nodes representing the main cue or question, and also from nodes representing the hint. The benefits of context reinstatement can be explained in a similar fashion.
|
|
|
|
CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT WORKS BECAUSE |
because the target node can receive activation from two sources simultaneously—from nodes representing the main cue or question, and also from nodes representing the hint.
|
|
|
|
CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT |
PROCEDURE WHERE A PERSON IS LED TO THE SAME MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL STATE THEY WERE IN DURING A PREVIOUS EVENT IN ORDER TO PROMOTE ACCURATE RECOLLECTION |
|
|
|
PROCEDURE WHERE A PERSON IS LED TO THE SAME MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL STATE THEY WERE IN DURING A PREVIOUS EVENT IN ORDER TO PROMOTE ACCURATE RECOLLECTION
|
CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT |
|
|
|
Activating one node seems to prime nearby nodes through the process of spreading activation. This is evident (for example) in studies of semantic priming in lexical-decision tasks.
|
studies of semantic priming in lexical-decision tasks.
|
|
|
|
Source memory is essential for
|
recall
|
|
|
|
____________ memory is essential for recall |
source memory |
|
|
|
recognition can be achieved through
|
source memory or familiarity.
|
|
|
|
the task of memory retrieval where the items are presented and the person decides if the item was seen earlier. |
recognition |
|
|
|
recognition |
the task of memory retrieval where the items are presented and the person decides if the item was seen earlier.
|
|
|
|
recall |
task of memory where a person must generate the information, sometimes in response to a cue or question |
|
|
|
"name the pictures you saw earlier" requires which task of memory retrieval? |
recall |
|
|
|
"What is the capital of California" requires which task of memory retrieval? |
recall |
|
|
|
"name a fruit" requires which task of memory retrieval? |
recall |
|
|
|
"have you seen this person before" requires which which type of memory retrieval? |
recognition |
|
|
|
source memory |
form of memory that allows you to recollect the episode in which learning took place OR the time and place a particular stimulus was encountered |
|
|
|
form of memory that allows you to recollect the episode in which learning took place OR the time and place a particular stimulus was encountered
|
source memory
|
|
|
|
memories that influence you even when you have no awareness that you are being influenced by a specific previous event
|
implicit memories |
|
|
|
fluency is sometimes detected and registered as
|
a sense of “specialness” attached to a stimulus. Often this specialness is then attributed to some cause, but this attribution can be inaccurate.
|
|
|
|
sometimes detected as a sense of “specialness” attached to a stimulus. Often this specialness is then attributed to some cause, but this attribution can be inaccurate.
|
fluency |
|
|
|
Implicit memory is also important in understanding the pattern of symptoms in
|
antereograde amnesia Amnesic patients perform badly on tests requiring explicit memory and may not even recall events that happened just minutes earlier. However, they often perform at near-normal levels on tests involving implicit memory. |
|
|
|
implicit/explicit memory disparity underscores the fact that
|
we cannot speak in general about good and bad memories, good and poor learning. Instead, learning and memory must be matched to a particular task and a particular form of test; learning and memory that are excellent for some tasks may be poor for others
|
|
|
|
learning and memory must be matched to
|
a particular task and a particular form of test; learning and memory that are excellent for some tasks may be poor for others
|
|
|
|
In general, memory errors are produced by
|
the connections that link your memories to each other and link memories for specific episodes to other, more general knowledge. |
|
|
|
understanding promotes memory for the episode’s gist but also
|
encourages memory errors
|
|
|
|
reliance on schematic knowledge can lead you to
|
remember an episode as being more “regular,” more “normal,” than it actually was.
|
|
|
|
can we reliably detect false memories by relying on the contrast between whether people say they “remember” the past or whether they say they merely “know” what happened in the past?
|
No |
|
|
|
The problem in relying on confidence to indicate accuracy is
|
confidence is influenced by factors (such as feedback) that have no impact on accuracy, and this influence undermines the linkage between accuracy and confidence.
|
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: WE CAN ONLY DOCUMENT MEMORY ERRORS |
FALSE, cases of accurate remembering can also be observed, and they are probably more numerous than cases involving memory error. |
|
|
|
ARE MEMORY ERRORS MORE LIKELY IN RECENT EVENTS OR DISTANT ONES? |
DISTANT |
|
|
|
WHY ARE DISTANT MEMORIES MORE PRONE TO ERRORS? |
decay of the relevant memories; another reason is retrieval failure.
Retrieval failure can be either complete or partial; the tip-of-your-tongue pattern provides a clear example of partial retrieval failure. Perhaps the most important source of forgetting, though, is interference. |
|
|
|
RETRIEVAL FAILURE CAN BE EITHER |
COMPLETE OR PARTIAL |
|
|
|
TIP OF THE TONGUE IS AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT KIND OF RETRIEVAL FAILURE? |
PARTIAL |
|
|
|
is influenced by the same principles as any other form of memory, but it is also shaped by its own set of factors. For example, episodes connected to the self are, in general, better remembered—a pattern known as the self-reference effect.
|
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY |
|
|
|
episodes connected to the self are, in general, better remembered—a pattern known as the
|
self-reference effect.
|
|
|
|
self-reference effect.
|
episodes connected to the self are, in general, better remembered
|
|
|
|
WHAT EFFECT DOES EMOTION HAVE ON AUTOBIO. MEMORIES? |
multiple effects on memory
|
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: People cannot provide definitions for most of the concepts they use
|
TRUE |
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: knowing a concept and being able to use it competently requireS knowing a definition
|
FALSE |
|
|
|
your knowledge specifies ----------------, rather than naming properties that are truly definitive for the concept
|
what is typical for each concept
|
|
|
|
your knowledge specifies what is typical for each concept, rather than
|
naming properties that are truly definitive for the concept
|
|
|
|
__________________ specifies what is typical for each concept, rather than naming properties that are truly definitive for the concept
|
ONE'S KNOWLEDGE |
|
|
|
Concepts based on typicality will have
|
a family resemblance structure, with different category members sharing features but with no features being shared by the entire group
|
|
|
|
family resemblance structure
|
different category members sharing features but with no features being shared by the entire group
|
|
|
|
different category members sharing features but with no features being shared by the entire group
|
family resemblance structure
|
|
|
|
Concepts may be represented in the mind via prototypes, with each prototype representing what is most typical for that category. This implies that categories will have |
graded membership
|
|
|
|
_________________ categories seem to be the categories we learn earliest and use most often
|
BASIC LEVEL |
|
|
|
CHAIR IS AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT LEVEL OF CATEGORY? |
BASIC LEVEL |
|
|
|
FURNITURE IS AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT LEVEL OF CATEGORY? |
SUPERORDINATE |
|
|
|
"ARMCHAIR" IS AN EXAMPLE OF WHAT LEVEL OF CATEGORY? |
SUBORDINATE |
|
|
|
THIS LEVEL CATEGORY IS USUALLY REPRESENTED BY A SINGLE WORD |
BASIC LEVEL |
|
|
|
can be also be explained with a model that relies on specific category exemplars, and with category judgments made by the drawing of analogies to these remembered exemplars.
|
Typicality results
|
|
|
|
The ______________ can explain your ability to view categories from a new perspective.
|
exemplar model
|
|
|
|
Sometimes categorization does not depend at all on whether the test case resembles a prototype or a category exemplar. This is evident WITH
|
|
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: Knowledge about essential properties is just a supplement to categorization via resemblance |
FALSE knowledge about essential properties may be a prerequisite for judgments of resemblance |
|
|
|
knowledge about essential properties may be a prerequisite for
|
judgments of resemblance
|
|
|
|
________________ may be a prerequisite for judgments of resemblance
|
knowledge about essential properties
|
|
|
|
knowledge about essential properties ALLOWS YOU TO
|
to assess resemblance with regard to just those properties that truly matter for the category and not be misled by irrelevant or accidental properties
|
|
|
|
ALLOWS YOU TOassess resemblance with regard to just those properties that truly matter for the category and not be misled by irrelevant or accidental properties |
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES |
|
|
|
TRUE OR FALSE: ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES ARE THE SAME FROM ONE CATEGORY TO THE NEXT |
FALSE The properties that are essential for a category vary from one category to the next. |
|
|
|
The identification of _______ seems to depend on beliefs held about the category, including causal beliefs that specify why the category features are as they are.
|
ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES |
|
|
|
These beliefs are implicit theories, and they describe the category not in isolation but in relation to various other concepts.
|
ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES |
|
|
|
includes causal beliefs that specify why the category features are as they are.
|
ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES
|
|
|
|
Prototypes and exemplars may serve as
|
categorization heuristics, allowing efficient and usually accurate judgments about category membership
|
|
|
|
when prototypes and exemplars are not adequate you rely on |
your implicit theories about the concept.
|
|
|
|
working memory is a dynamic form of |
STM |
|
|
|
WM emphasizes the function of |
shorter term memory |
|
|
|
WM CONSISTS OF |
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
|
|
|
|
____________ IS THE ABILITY TO CONDENSE INFO |
CHUNKING |
|
|
|
FEATURES OF LTM AND STM MEMORY |
|
F A C T |
|
|
THIS TYPE OF PROCESSING IS PERCEPTUAL |
SHALLOW |
|
|
|
THIS TYPE OF PROCESSING FOCUSES ON MEANING AND LINKS |
DEEP |
|
|
|
AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT PROCESSING INFORMATION DOESN'T MATTER AS MUCH AS |
THE LEVEL AT WHICH YOU PROCESS THE INFO |
|
|
|
INDEXING |
MAKING A PATH TO THE INFORMATION |
|
|
|
THE METHOD OF LOCI INVOLVES WHAT PART OF THE BRAIN? |
HIPPOCAMPUS |
|
|
|
ARE ACQUISITION, STORAGE, AND RETRIEVAL EASILY SEPERABLE? |
NO |
|
|
|
WHAT PART OF THE BRAIN ACTS AS AN INDEX FOR OUR MEMORIES? |
HIPPOCAMPUS |
|
|
|
MISINFORMATION EFFECT |
MEMORIES CAN BE ALTERED BY LEADING QUESTIONS OR SUGGESTIONS AFTER THE EVENT |
|
|
|
INTRUSION ERRORS ARE WHEN |
YOUR OWN KNOWLEDGE OR SCHEMAS INTRUDE ON A MEMORY |
|
|
|
Difficulty in learning new information because of already existing information
|
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE |
IF YOU'RE A PRO, YOU ALREADY HAVE THAT INFORMATION SO NEW STUFF GETS IN THE WAY |
|
|
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE |
Difficulty in learning new information because of already existing information
|
IF YOU'RE A PRO, YOU ALREADY HAVE THAT INFORMATION SO NEW STUFF GETS IN THE WAY
|
|
|
difficulty recalling old information because of newly learned information.
|
Retroactive interference
|
|
|
|
difficulty skiing because of recently learning how to snowboard is an example of what type of interference?
|
retroactive interference |
|
|
|
Retroactive interference
|
difficulty recalling old information because of newly learned information.
|
|
|
|
emotional memories interact with |
the amygdala AND the hippocampus |
|
|
|
reminiscence bump may be due to |
rehersal |
|
|
|
reminiscence bump is |
a superior form of autobiographical memory that doesn't decay normally |
|
|
|
superior form of autobiographical memory that doesn't decay normally
|
reminiscence bump
|
|
|
|
family resemblence is a matter of |
degree not all or none |
|
|
|
when thinking about a category are we generally thinking about an exemplar or prototype? |
prototype |
|
|
|
we judge ________ by how close an example is to the prototype |
attractiveness |
|
|
|
we judge attractiveness by ______ |
how close an example is to the prototype |
|
|
|
____________ are economical but less flexible |
prototypes |
|
|
|
_________ are more flexible but less economical |
exemplars |
|
|
|
ideals are built from |
experiences |
|
|
|
common or redundant info is represented on the _________ level |
superordinate |
|
|
|
"hasa" and "isa" are ________ |
links |
|
|
|
method of representation that allows parallel processing |
connectionist network |
|
|
|
anomia |
person loses the ability to name object, including highly familiar objects |
|
|
|
lose the ability to name object, even highly familiar ones |
anomia |
|
|
|
task general resources |
|
R Ex Er |
|
|
reciting is what kind of rehersal? |
maintenance |
|
|
|
linking is what kind of rehersal |
relational or elaborative rehersal |
|
|
|
framework for explaining how context effects learning and recall |
encoding specificity principle |
|
|
|
_________ is associated retrieval of source and context where as memory based purely on __________ is not |
recall familiarity |
|
|
|
does familiarity = recall? |
No, recall is associated retrieval of source and context |
|
|
|
part of the brain that supports memory for source |
hippocampus |
|
|
|
region of the brain associated with familiarity related signals |
left lateral parietal cortex |
|
|
|
types of explicit memory |
episodic or semantic |
|
|
|
types of implicit memory |
|
Pro Con PrimPer |
|
|
alzheimer's pts have damage to what part of the brain |
MTL |
|
|
|
pts with semantic dementia have damage to what parts of the brain |
lateral temporal AND frontal |
|
|
|
these define the boundaries of a category |
exemplars |
|
|
|
Anderson's ACT Network is designed around _____ |
prepositions |
|
|
|
are propositional networks localist or distributed? |
localist |
|
|
|
are connectionist networks localist or distributed |
distributed |
|
