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44 Cards in this Set

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  • Back

What does Stephen Pinker (famous contemporary psychologist) say about learning & knowledge?

"Thebest way to gain proficiency at a task or skill is by doing....shortcuts,no cross-training - no Sudoku"

What does Robert Heinlein (Sci-Fi novelist) say about learning & knowledge?

"Beliefgets in the way of learning"

What cognitive process does learning involve?

Attention!

What is a challenge for organisms with learning and attention?

1. Organisms must figure out what is relevant for achieving a particular goal




2. Inthe pursuit of some goal, organisms must overcome initial fascination(attention) to salient but irrelevant attributes4lj

What does the waggle dance in bees communicate?

the location of a new food source

What does the dance indicate with respect to the direction of the sun?

If the angle is 90 degees to the left, bees will fly 90 degrees to the left of the sun for food source. if angle is 60 degrees to the right, then bees will fly 60 degrees right of the sun.





Because the waggle dance only communicates location and distance of food (and not Terrain, weather, predators, etc.) this is an example of ...?

Selective Attention

What is Selective Attention?

Ignoring irrelevant/distracting information and only focusing on relevant information to help us attain our goals.

Do high salience cues attract your attention (when validity is absent)?




Do low salience cues attract your attention?

Yes.




No.

What are the four experimental effects which show us that attention is important for learning?

1. Trade offs between salience and validity


2. Blocking


3. Highlighting


4. Learning rules of different complexity

What is one study that looks at the tradeoffs between salience and validity?

Posner cuing task

What is the Posner cuing task?

In a Posner cuing task, only one of the arrows correctly predicts the location of the light

The probability with which the arrow predicts the location might vary from perfect validity (p = 1.0) to less-than-perfect validity (p = .80) to chance...

In a Posner cuing task, only one of the arrows correctly predicts the location of the lightThe probability with which the arrow predicts the location might vary from perfect validity (p = 1.0) to less-than-perfect validity (p = .80) to chance (p = .50)

Which cue has high salience? Which cue has high validity?




Are both cues the same arrow?

Blue.




Red.




No, the red arrow is the valid cue, but the blue arrow has high salience that is irrelevant to the goal (the ability to predict the region of the light)

What do participants attend to in the Posner experiment?

Initially people attend to the high salience cue, but over time they learn that this cue is not valid and are able to shut it out.

In different conditions in the Posner experiment, experimenter's change the validity. If both the high salience cue and the low salience cue had the same predictability (both = .8), then which cue do people mostly attend to?

The high salience cue

What are two theories of learning?

1. The simple learning theory = the more things co-occur with each other, the more you will learn to associate them with each other




2. Attentional Learning Theory = selective attention

What are two classic examples of the Simple Learning Theory?

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's Dog)




2, Operant Conditioning (Skinner's Box)

What is Blocking?

That the added association in Late Training, is systematically blocked out because it was not required during Early Training.




*One reason to debunk Simple Learning Theory

How is blocking demonstrated?

B.D. ? The Result is Y consistently, therefore B is Blocked.

B.D. ? The Result is Y consistently, therefore B is Blocked.

What is Highlighting?

That the pairing of one novel stimulus in Late Training with an old stimulus in Early Training highlights that novel stimulus.




*Another reason to debunk Simple Learning Theory

How is Highlighting demonstrated?

The mouse will go to Food Reward Y, regardless that B has double the frequency of D.

The mouse will go to Food Reward Y, regardless that B has double the frequency of D.

Are Blocking and Highlighting effects replicable with other animals and humans.

Yes. These are very robust findings

What is the Rescorla-Wagner Model (also called the Delta rule)? - Simple Learning model




*Search engines use this algorithm

1. Frequency of co-occurrence an important factor in determining what is learned in the simple learning model


2. The difference between the predicted and actual outcomes are an important component of the simple learning model


3.The speed of learning is determined by a parameter in the model (Blocking)

Can the learning of a new language in humans be represented by the Rescorla-Wagner Model?

No. Attentional Learning Theory (as opposed to Simple Learning Theory) differs as attention only selects some of the features, while deselecting others, incorporating the ability to differentially weight cues according to their relevance.

In the Filtration and Condensation experiment, what was the outcome for unidimensional rules and dual-dimensional rules?

Participants were quicker at learning the categories in the unidimensional rules (Filtration).





What is the predictive value of the Attentional Learning Theory over the Simple Learning Theory?

The Attentional Learning Theory could accurately predict the outcomes, but the Simple Learning Theory could not.

The Attentional Learning Theory could accurately predict the outcomes, but the Simple Learning Theory could not.

What is Fast Mapping?

An inference by exclusion: you for hypotheses which is faster than learning through trial and error each time.




The ability to learn things not merely through trial and error every time (as learning isn't just additions of associations, repetition, etc).

What easy example does Dan use in the lecture of Fast Mapping (think Teddy)?

Which flower makes the bear sneeze?
Which flower makes the bear sneeze?

What does the Blicket Detector example demonstrate?

That prior experience can bias your hypotheses.

What happens in the one-cause condition?

In this condition, children age 3-4 label only the first object as the blicket

In this condition, children age 3-4 label only the first object as the blicket

What happens in the two-cause condition?

Two-cause: In this condition, children age 3-4 label both objects as blickets

Two-cause: In this condition, children age 3-4 label both objects as blickets

What is Backward Blocking and Indirect Screening Off?

1. Backward blocking: In this condition, children age 3-4 label only the square as a blicket
- This is known as backward blocking because the knowledge acquired after the initial presentation that the square activated the detector by itself bloc...

1. Backward blocking: In this condition, children age 3-4 label only the square as a blicket- This is known as backward blocking because the knowledge acquired after the initial presentation that the square activated the detector by itself blocked learning about the previous learning about the cylinderIndirect


2. Screening-off: In this condition, children are more likely to rate the cylinder as a blicket

What is Explanation?

Hypothesis Evaluation




Your expectations are hypotheses that you use to evaluate information in the world

What are the two ways in which prior knowledge influences our hypotheses?

1. Holmesian Deduction




2. Judicial Exoneration

What is Holmesian Deduction?

Once you eliminate the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth




Only hypotheses which explain the data are plausible candidates for an explanation

What is Judicial Exoneration?

Judicial Exoneration - If one suspect confesses, then we let the other suspect go




If one hypothesis clearly explains the data, then other candidates are consider less likely

As strength in belief strengthens, does is squash probabilities of other beliefs?

Yes it can.




This is exemplified by the cause of Peptic Ulcers in the stomach - that it was caused by stress (even though there was not much support for this), because it was not believed that bacteria could grow and live in the stomach.

What did Barry Marshall (Professor of Clinical Microbiology at UWA) working with Robin Warren at the Royal Perth Hospital find?

After 1982, evidence was provided that Helicobacter Pylori could live in the stomach. Suddenly, the bacterial infection hypothesis became plausible.




So with this hypothesis, they found that peptic ulcers could be treated with anti-biotics

What is Baye's Rule?

Your updated belief should be proportional to your prior belief times the likelihood of the observed event (i.e., how much did your hypothesis actually predict the event?)




Prior Beliefs x Likelihood of Observed Event

What is Oscar's Razor?

People prefer explanations that explain more data with a minimal number of assumptions




“The simplest explanation (that fits the observed data) is probably the correct explanation”

What did Frank Keil find with participants' explanations and knowledge (Helicopter experiment)?

Most of our hypotheses are very sparse (i.e., they encompass only one or two causes and events)




People vastly overestimated what they thought they knew, but in fact, their knowledge was much sparser. Helicopter example…(37 different helicopter parts)

Could this be only in relation to Explanatory Knowledge?

Yes. This ignorance may be quite specific to explanatory knowledge. Estimations about declarative knowledge (facts & procedures) was more accurate.

What are Ad Hoc Explanations?

Can be created rapidly using inferences from the current situation

What is Distributed Cognition?

Share knowledge between individuals, Support structures in the environment (e.g., Google)




ie. don't need to learn it indepth if can simply look up on google