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331 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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terrestrial organisms that include forms that have returned to water
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plants
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organism that makes organic molecules by photosynthesis
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photoautotroph
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Where do photosynthetic organisms receive water and mineral nutrients?
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Mainly in the soil
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aerial leaf-bearing organs used by plants to absorb sunlight and CO2
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shoots
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subterranean organs used by plants to absorb water and minerals
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roots
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symbiotic associations of fungi and roots, in which the fungi absorb water and essential minerals from the soil, provide these materials to the plant, and are nourished by sugars produced by the plant
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Mycorrhizae
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key adaptations that made it possible for plants to live on land
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Mycorrhizae
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The main photosynthetic organ of most plants which utilize stomata, vacular tissue, and the cuticle.
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Leaves
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microscopic pores found on a leaf's surface for the exchange of CO2 and O2 with the atmosphere
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Stomata
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A system of tube-shaped cells that branch throughout the plant for the transport of vital materials
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vascular tissue
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a waxy layer coating leaves and other aerial plants of most plants for the retention of water
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cuticle
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protective structure which have a jacket of protective cells surrounding a moist chamber where gametes can develop without dehydrating to produce their gametes
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Gametangia
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In plants, where does the zygote develop into the embryo?
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within the female parent
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When did plants evolve from algae?
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500 million years ago
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modern-day lineage of green algae and may resemble one of these early plant ancestors
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Charophytes
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are bryophytes, sprawl as low mats over acres of land, and need water to reproduce because their sperm swim to reach eggs within the female gametangium.
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Mosses
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Mosses display what two key terrestrial adaptations?
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A cuticle, & retention of developing embryos within the mother's plant's gametangium
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What are the two forms of mosses?
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gametophyte & sporophyte
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type of moss which produces gametes
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gametophyte
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type of sporophyte which produces spores
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Sporophyte
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How are mosses and bryophytes unique from other plants?
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the gametophyte is the larger more obvious plant
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by far the most diverse seedless vascular plants, represented by more than 12,000 known species; have flagella
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Ferns
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How do the sperm of ferns fertilize eggs
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they must swim through a film of water to fertilize eggs
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formed from the remains of long-dead organisms and
include coal, oil, and natural gas. |
Fossil Fuels
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This act releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change
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The burning of fossil fuels
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can complete their life cycles on dry land and withstand long, harsh winters; formed and evolved near the end of the carboniferous period
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Gymnosperms
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cone-bearing plants
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conifers
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cover much of northern Eurasia and North America, are usually evergreens, and include the tallest, largest, and oldest organisms on Earth
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Conifers
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plants that retain their leaves throughout the year
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Evergreens
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What 3 terrestrial adaptations made survival for conifers and gymnosperms possible?
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further reduction of the gametophyte,
pollen, and seeds |
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actually the much-reduced male gametophyte and houses cells that will develop into sperm
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Pollen grain
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consists of a plant embryo and food supply packaged together within a protective coat
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Seed
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develop from ovules, and can remain dormant for long periods before they germinate
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Seeds
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structures located on the scales of female cones in conifers
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Ovules
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when the embryo emerges through the seed coat as a seedling
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germination
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dominate the modern landscape, are represented by about 250,000 species, and supply nearly all of our food and much of our fiber for textiles
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Angiosperms
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tubes in angiosperms that made water transport more efficient, leading to success
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Vascular Tissue
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help to attract pollinators that transfer pollen from the sperm-bearing organs of one flower to the egg-bearing organs of another
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Flowers
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a short stem bearing modified leaves that are attached in concentric circles at its base
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Flowers
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Form the outer layer of a flower and are usually green
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Sepals
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colorful parts of the flower that help to attract pollinators
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Petals
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male reproductive structures located below the petals.
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Stamens
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Sac at the top of each stamen where pollen grains develop
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Anther
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the female reproductive structure at the center of the flower
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Carpels
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What two parts does the Carpel consist of?
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The ovary & The stigma
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structure of the carpel where a protective chamber containing one or more ovules in which the eggs develop
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The Ovary
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Sticky tip of the carpel which traps pollen
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Stigma
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What is the difference between the seeds of angiosperms and gymnosperms?
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angiosperms enclose the seed within an ovary while
gymnosperms have naked seeds |
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a ripened ovary, helps protect the seed, increases seed dispersal, and is a major food source for animals
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Fruit
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supply most of our lumber and paper
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Gymnosperms
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provide nearly all our food and supply fiber, medications, perfumes, and decoration
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Angiosperms
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recycle vital chemical elements back to the environment in forms other organisms can assimilate and form mycorrhizae
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Fungi
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fungus-root associations that help plants absorb mineral and water from the soil.
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Mycorrhizae
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What kind of cells do Fungi have?
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Euks
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Fungi are more closely related to animals than plants. From a common ancestor, when did fungi arise?
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1.5 billion years ago
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What type of organisms are Fungi?
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Chemoheterotrophs
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How do fungi acquire nutrients?
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Absorption
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fungi that digests food outside its body by secreting powerful digestive enzymes to break down the food and absorbs the simpler food compounds
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Fungus
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thread-like filaments that construct the bodies of most fungi
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Hyphae
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minute threads of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane and cell walls mainly composed of chitin
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Hyphae
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An interwoven network formed as a result of Hyphae branching repeatedly; The feeding structure of the fungus
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mycelium
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arise from an underground mycelium and mainly function in reproduction
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Mushrooms
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How do Fungi reproduce?
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by releasing haploid spores that are produced either sexually or asexually
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the principal decomposers of ecosystems and keep ecosystems stocked with the inorganic nutrients necessary for plant growth
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Fungi and bacteria
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What would happen without decomposers?
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carbon, nitrogen, and other elements would accumulate in nonliving organic matter
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How did animal life begin?
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in Precambrian seas with the evolution of multicellular creatures that ate other organisms
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What 3 things qualify an organism as an animal?
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Eukaryotic cells, Multicellular, Heterotrophic
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organisms that obtain nutrients by ingestion and are able to digest their food within their bodies
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Heterotrophs
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Most animals have what kind of cells?
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muscle cells and nerve cells that control the muscles
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diploid organisms that reproduce sexually and proceed through a series of typically similar developmental stages
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Animals
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What did animals evolve from according to scientists?
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a colonial flagellated protist
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How old are the oldest animal fossils?
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550–575 million years old
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When did animal diversity appear to accelerate?
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530 million years ago during the Cambrian period
aka Cambrian expolosion |
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What two things may have ignited the Cambrian explosion?
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more complex predator-prey relationships
Increase in atmospheric oxygen |
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General features of body structure and genetic data biologists categorize animals by
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Body Plan
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What major branch point separates sponges from all other animals?
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sponges lack true tissues
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What was the second major evolutionary split of animals based on?
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Body symmetry
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refers to animals that are identical all around a central axis
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Radial symmetry
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exists where there is only one way to split the animal into equal halves
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Bilateral symmetry
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a fluid-filled space separating the digestive tract from the outer body wall; a way in which animals vary
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Body Cavity
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If the body cavity is not completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm, it is called a ____________.
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pseudocoelom
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coelom that is completely lined by tissue derived from mesoderm
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A true coelom
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animals without backbones and represent 95% of the animal kingdom
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Invertebrates
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stationary animals that lack true tissues, and probably evolved very early from colonial protists
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Sponges
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cells that draw water through the walls of the sponge where food is collected
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Choanocyte Cells
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organisms characterized by the presence of body tissues, radial symmetry, and tentacles with stinging cells
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Cnidarians
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a central digestive compartment with only one opening; the basic body plan of a cnidarian
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Gastrovascular cavity
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The body plan, gastrovascular cavity, has what two variations?
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the stationary polyp and
the floating medusa. |
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carnivores that use tentacles, armed with cnidocytes
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Cnidarians
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stinging cells, for defense and to capture prey
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cnidocytes
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soft-bodied animals usually protected by a hard shell
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Molluscs
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a fold of tissue that secretes the shell if present in a mollusc
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Mantle
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The body of molluscs consists of what 3 main parts?
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a muscular foot for movement,
a visceral mass containing most organs, a mantle |
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What are the 3 major groups of molluscs?
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Gastropods, Flatworms, Annelids
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organisms protected by a single, spiraled shell
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Snails
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Type of molluscs which include snails, slugs, and sea slugs
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Gastropods
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the simplest bilateral animals; include forms that are parasites or free-living in marine, freshwater, or damp habitats
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Flatworms
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Type of molluscs that have body segmentation
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Annelids
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a subdivision of the body along its length into a series of repeated parts. ex: earthworms
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Body segmentation
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What are the three main groups of annelids?
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leeches, earthworms, polychaetes
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Type of annelids which eat their way through soil
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Earthworms
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marine worms with segmental appendages for movement and gas exchange; group of annelids
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Poly chaetes
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Type of annelid which is a typically free-living carnivore but with some blood-sucking forms
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Leeches
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What two things make up the bodies of annelids?
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A complete digestive tract
A coelom |
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Animals that are cylindrical in shape, tapered at both ends, and the most numerous and widespread of all animals; aka nematodes
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Roundworms
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important decomposers and dangerous parasites in plants, humans, and other animals
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Roundworms
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segmented animals with specialized segments and appendages for an efficient division of labor among body regions
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Arthropods
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What are the four main groups of arthropods?
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Arachnids, Crustaceans, Millipedes and Centipedes, and insects
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External skeleton that provides protection and points of attachment for muscles; generally found in Arthropods
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Exoskeleton
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Arthropods that usually live on land, usually have four pairs of walking legs and a specialized pair of feeding appendages, and include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites
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Arachnids
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Arthropods that are nearly all aquatic, have multiple pairs of specialized appendages, and include crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and barnacles
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Crustaceans
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Arthropods that eat decaying plant matter and have two pairs of short legs per body segment
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Millipedes
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Arthropods with terrestrial carnivores with poison claws and have one pair of short legs per body segment
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Centipedes
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The bodies of insects consist of what 3 parts?
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head, thorax, and abdomen
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What is one key to great success of insects?
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Flight
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organisms that lack body segments, typically show radial symmetry as adults but bilateral symmetry as larvae, have an endoskeleton, and have a water vascular system that facilitates movement and gas exchange
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Echinoderms
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Organisms that have unique endoskeletons composed of a cranium (skull) and a backbone made of a series of bones called vertebrae
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Vertebrates
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What 4 key features are shared by Chordates?
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a dorsal, hollow nerve cord, a notochord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail
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Chordate characteristic which is apparent in the backbone of vertebrates and segmental muscles of all chordates
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Body Segmentation
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Chordates consist of what 3 groups of invertebrates?
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Lancelets, Tunicates, Hagfishes
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bladelike animals without a cranium; a group of invertebrates
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Lancelets
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Group of invertebrates which lack a cranium; aka seq squirts
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Tunicates
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Group of invertebrates that are eel-like and have a cranium
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Hagfishes
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Aside from 3 groups, all other chordates are what kind of organisms?
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Vertebrates
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When did the first vertebrates evolve?
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during the early Cambrian period, about 540 million years ago
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What is one major characteristic of the first vertebrates?
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They lacked jaws
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What are the two major groups of living fishes?
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Cartilaginous fishes
Bony Fishes |
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Type of living fishes with a flexible skeleton made of cartilage; ex: sharks and rays
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Cartilaginous fishes
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Type of living fishes with a skeleton reinforced by hard calcium salts; includes ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes
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Bony fish
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organisms that exhibit a mixture of aquatic and terrestrial adaptations, usually need water to reproduce, and typically undergo metamorphosis from an aquatic larva to a terrestrial adult
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Amphibians
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What organisms were the first vertebrates to colonize land?
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Amphibians
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The first amphibians descended from fishes. What characteristics did these fishes have?
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lungs, fins with muscles, and
skeletal supports strong enough to enable some movement on land |
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fluid-filled eggs that have waterproof shells, and enclose the developing embryo
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amniotic eggs
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Organisms that produce amniotic eggs; includes Reptiles and mammals
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Amniotes
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Reptiles include what 6 different animals?
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Snakes, Lizards, Turtles, Crocodiles, Alligators, and Birds
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What two adaptations do reptiles possess that allow them to live on land?
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amniotic eggs and scaled waterproof skin
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Animals that obtain body heat from the environment; sometimes referred to as cold-blooded
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Ectotherms
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a lineage of small, two-legged dinosaurs that birds evolved from during the Mesozoic Era
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Theropods
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What 3 adaptations make birds lighter in flight?
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honeycombed bones,
only one ovary, and a beak instead of teeth |
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animals that maintain a warmer and steady body temperature.
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Endotherms
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wings powered by breast muscles anchored to a kneel-like breastbone; bird wings adapted for flight
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Airfoils
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animals that arose about 200 million years ago and were probably small, nocturnal insect-eaters
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Mammals
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What two aquatic animals are considered mammals?
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Dolphins and Whales
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What are two characteristics unique to mammals?
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Hair
milk-producing mammary glands to nourish the young |
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What are the three groups of mammals?
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Monotremes, Marsupials, Eutherians
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Egg-laying mammals
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Monotremes
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Pouched mammals with a placenta; Kangaroos
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Marsupials
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Placental mammals
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Eutherians
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When and from who did primates evolve from?
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insect-eating mammals during the late Cretaceous period, about 65 million years ago
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What 4 characteristics distinguish primates from other animals?
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limber shoulder joints,
eyes in front of the face, excellent eye-hand coordination, and extensive parental care |
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Humans share a common african ancestry with what animal?
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Chimpanzees
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How are humans different from chimpanzees?
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Humans are bipedal and have much larger brains
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What was the first adaptation to evolve in humans first?
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Bipedalism
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had a larger brain
walked upright, and made stone tools that enhanced hunting, gathering, and scavenging on the African savanna. aka "handy man" |
Homo habilis
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the first species to extend humanity’s range from Africa to other continents
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Homo erectus
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When did global dispersal occur?
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1.8 million years ago
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regionally diverse descendents in Europe and Asia and known as neanderthals. was taller and had a larger brain than H. Habilis
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Homo Neanderthalensis
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Shared a common ancestor with humans about 500,000 years ago and may have interbred with homo sapiens
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Neanderthals
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When and where were the oldest known fossils of our own species (homo sapiens) discovered?
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in Ethiopia and
date from 160,000 to 200,000 years ago |
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the social transmission of accumulated knowledge, customs, beliefs, and art over generations
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Culture
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How is culture primarily transmitted?
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Language
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the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments
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Ecology
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all of the organisms in the area and
the living component of the environment |
Biotic Factors
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the environment’s nonliving component and
include chemical and physical factors, such as temperature, light, water, minerals, and air |
Abiotic Factors
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Ecology can be divided into what 4 levels?
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Community
Organismal Population Ecosystem |
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an individual living thing
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Organism
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ecology concerned with evolutionary adaptations that enable individual organisms to meet the challenges posed by their abiotic environments
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Organismal ecology
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ecology that addresses populations, groups of individuals of the same species living in an area and concentrates mainly on factors that affect population density and growth
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Population ecology
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ecology concerned with communities, all the organisms that inhabit an area and focuses on how interactions between species affect a community’s structure and organization
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Community ecology
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ecology concerned with ecosystems, all the abiotic factors and the community of species in a certain area. Also focuses on energy flow and the cycling of chemicals among abiotic and biotic factors
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Ecosystem Ecology
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the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems, or all of life and where it lives
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Biosphere
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What do patterns in distribution of life reflect?
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differences in an environment's abiotic factors
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What process powers most ecosystems?
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Photosynthesis
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occur a mile or more below the ocean’s surface and are ecosystems powered by chemoautotrophic bacteria
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Hydrothermal Vents
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bacteria that derive energy from the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as hydrogen sulfide
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chemoautotrophic bacteria
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Name one major factor in metalbolism
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temperature
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Temperatures above _ _ ºC destroy the enzymes of most organisms
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45ºC
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Molecule essential to all life
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Water
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What is one major problem aquatic organisms face in their surroundings?
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Whether or not their own solute concentration does not match that of their surroundings
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What affects the distribution and abundance of plants?
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- availability of inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous
- pH of the soil - structure of the soil |
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In many aquatic ecosystems, the growth of algae and photosynthetic bacteria is often limited by what factors?
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the levels of dissolved oxygen, salinity, currents, and tides
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Terrestrial ecosystems are specifically affected by what factors?
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Wind, storms, or fire.
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Evolutionary adaptation via natural selection results from the interactions between what two things?
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Organisms and their environments
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What is an example of a behavioral response?
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Birds adjusting to cold by
migrating to warmer regions |
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What is an example of an anatomical response?
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A bird growing heavier feathers to combat cold conditions
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What is an example of a physiological response?
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Birds fluffing up their feathers to trap more heat to endure the cold
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A gradual, reversible, and physiological adjustment to an environmental change
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Acclimation
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Why is it that birds and mammals can tolerate the greatest temperature extremes?
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They are endotherms
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Why is it that reptiles can only tolerate a limited range of temperatures?
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They are ectothermic organisms
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a major terrestrial or aquatic life zone, characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes or the physical environment in aquatic biomes
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Biomes
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occupy roughly 75% of Earth’s surface and are determined by their salinity and other physical factors
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Aquatic Biomes
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biomes that have a salt concentration of less than 1% and include lakes, streams, rivers, and wetlands
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Freshwater biomes
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biomes that typically have a salt concentration around 3% and include oceans, intertidal zones, coral reefs, and estuaries
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Marine biomes
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biomes that cover less than 1% of Earth, contain a mere 0.01% of its water, harbor about 6% of all described species, and are used for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation, and industry
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Freshwater Biomes
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Freshwater biomes fall into what two broad groups?
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Flowing water
Standing water |
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What bodies of water are included in standing water biomes?
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Lakes and ponds
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What bodies of water are included in flowing water biomes?
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Rivers and Streams
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How are communities of plants, algae, and animals distributed in lakes and ponds?
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By depth of water and distance from shore
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named because light is available for photosynthesis, includes the shallow water near shore and the upper layer of water away from shore
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Photic Zone
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is deeper than the photic zone and has light levels too low to support photosynthesi
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aphotic zone
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is at the bottom of all aquatic biomes, made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments, and occupied by communities of organisms that are collectively called benthos
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The benthic realm
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What two elements regulate the amount of phytoplankton growth in a lake or pond?
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Nitrogen
Phosphorous |
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bodies of water flowing in one direction and generally support quite different communities of organisms than lakes and ponds
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Rivers and Streams
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Describe the water near the source of a stream
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clear
cold swift low in nutrients |
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Describe water located downstream
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murky
warm slow high in nutrients (complete opposite of upstream) |
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a transitional biome between an aquatic ecosystem and a terrestrial one; support the growth of aquatic plants and are rich in species diversity
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Wetlands
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diverse biome, ranging from vivid coral reefs to perpetually dark realms in the deepest regions
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Marine Biome
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the seafloor in freshwater biomes and marine biomes is known as the _____ _____
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Benthic Realm
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includes all of the open water of the oceans
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Pelagic Realm
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zone which includes zooplankton (free-floating animals, including many microscopic ones), fishes, and marine mammals
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pelagic photic zone
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occurs in the photic zone of warm tropical waters, in scattered locations around the globe
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The Coral Reef Biome
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Dimly lit Ocean region between 200 and 1,000 m deep and is dominated by a fascinating variety of small fish and crustaceans
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Twilight Zone
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zone where the ocean meets land, the shore is pounded by waves during high tide, and the bottom is exposed to the sun and drying winds during low tide
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Intertidal zone
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a transition area between a river and the ocean, have a saltiness ranging from nearly that of fresh water to that of the ocean, and are among the most productive areas on Earth
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Estuaries
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Explain why rain forests are concentrated in the tropics
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Heated by the direct rays of the sun, air at the equator rises, then cools, forming clouds, and drops rain
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Areas that generally have milder climates than the tropics or the polar regions. They occur in latitudes between the tropics and the Arctic Circle in the north and the tropics and the Antarctic Circle in the south
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Temperate Zones
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Name two major ways in which mountains affect climate
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1.) Air temp. drops as elevation increases causing several biomes as you go up a mtn.
2.) mountains can block cool, moist air from a coast and cause very different climates on both sides of a mountain range |
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How are terrestrial ecosystems grouped into biomes?
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By their vegetation
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a visual representation of the differences in precipitation and temperature ranges that characterize terrestrial biomes
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A Climograph
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Biomes that occur in equatorial areas, where the temperature is warm, and days are 11–12 hours long year-round
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Tropical Forests
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Biomes that are dominated by grasses and scattered trees, are warm year-round, and experience rainfall of 30–50 cm (roughly 12–20 inches per year) with dramatic seasonal variation
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Savannas
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are the driest of all biomes, are characterized by low and unpredictable rainfall of less than 30 cm (about 12 inches) a year, and may be very hot or very cold
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Deserts
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has a climate that results from cool ocean currents circulating offshore and producing mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers
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Chaparral
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Biomes that are mostly treeless, have 25–75 cm (10–30 inches) of rain per year, experience frequent droughts and fires, and are characterized by grazers including bison and pronghorn in North America
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Temperate Grasslands
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occurs throughout midlatitudes where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees, ranging from 75 to 150 cm (30 to 60 inches), and includes dense stands of deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere
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Temperate Broadleaf Forest
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trees that drop their leaves before winter, when temperatures are too low for effective photosynthesis and water lost by evaporation is not easily replaced from frozen soil
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Deciduous trees
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Forests dominated by cone-bearing evergreen trees and include the northern coniferous forest, or taiga, the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
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Coniferous Forests
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Forests found along coastal North America from Alaska to Oregon and are also coniferous forests
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Temperate Rain forests
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Biome that covers expansive areas of the Arctic between the taiga and polar ice and is characterized by permafrost (permanently frozen subsoil), bitterly cold temperatures, and high winds
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Tundra
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What are two human activities that affect the global water cycle?
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Destruction of forests
Pumping large amounts of groundwater to the surface for irrigation |
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the goal of developing, managing, and conserving Earth’s resources in ways that meet the needs of people today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
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Sustainability
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What is causing global climate patterns to change?
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Rising concentrations in the atmosphere of CO2 and certain other gases
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gases that include CO2, water vapor, and methane, are transparent to solar radiation, absorb or reflect heat, and contribute to increases in global temperatures
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Greenhouse gases
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the number of individuals of a species per unit of area or volume
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pop density
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the distribution of individuals in different age-groups. provides insight into
the history of a population’s survival, reproductive success, and/or how the population relates to environmental factors |
age structure
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track survivorship (the chance of an individual in a given population surviving to various ages) and
help to determine the most vulnerable stages of the life cycle |
Life tables
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plot the number of individuals still alive at each age in the maximum life span and
are classified based upon the rate of mortality over the life span of an organism |
survivorship curves
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the set of traits that affect the organism’s schedule of
reproduction and survival |
Life history of an organism
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Name 4 key life history traits
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age at first reproduction,
frequency of reproduction, number of offspring, and amount of parental care given. |
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Organisms with an opportunistic life history
take immediate advantage of favorable conditions and typically exhibit what type of curve? |
type III survivorship curve
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Organisms with an equilibrial life history
develop and reach sexual maturity slowly, produce few, well-cared-for offspring, are typically larger-bodied and longer-lived, and typically exhibit what type of curve? |
Type I survivorship curve
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describes the expansion of a population in an ideal and unlimited environment
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Exponential population growth
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environmental factors that hold population growth in check and
restrict the number of individuals that can occupy a habitat |
limiting factors
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the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain
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carrying capacity
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growth that occurs when the growth rate decreases as the population size approaches carrying capacity
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Logistic population growth
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What two factors affect the carrying capacity for a population?
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the species and available resources in the habitat
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Where do organisms exhibiting equilibrial life history patters reside?
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in environments where the population size is at or near carrying capacity.
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competition between individuals of the same species for the same limited resources
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intraspecific competition
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a population-limiting factor whose effects intensify as the population increases in density
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density-dependent factor
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What happens as population size increases?
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competition becomes more intense and
birth rates decline. |
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population-limiting factors whose intensity is unrelated to population density and
include abiotic factors such as fires, floods, and storms. |
Density-Independent Factors
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ecology used to increase populations of organisms we wish to harvest,
decrease populations of pests, and save populations of organisms threatened with extinction |
Population ecology
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species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range and
a threatened species as one that is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future. |
Endangered Species
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What is a major factor in pop decline?
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habitat destruction or habitat modification
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a non-native species that has spread far beyond the original point of introduction and
causes environmental or economic damage by colonizing and dominating suitable habitats |
An invasive species
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invasive species typically inhibit what kind of life pattern?
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Opportunistic life history pattern
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the intentional release of a natural enemy to attack a pest population and
used to manage an invasive species |
biological control
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create their own highly managed ecosystems that
have genetically similar individuals (a monoculture), are planted in close proximity to each other, and function as a “banquet” for plant-eating animals, pathogenic bacteria, and viruses |
Agricultural operations
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result in pesticide-resistant pests,
kill the pest and their natural predators, and kill pollinators |
Pesticides
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tolerates a low level of pests instead of total eradication,
produces a sustainable control of agricultural pests, and uses a combination of biological methods, chemical methods, and cultural methods |
Integrated pest management
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Name 3 methods of Integrated pest management
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using pest-resistant varieties of crops,
using mixed-species plantings, and rotating crops to deprive the pest of a dependable food source |
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What two major historical events caused human life to improve and expand?
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Industrial and Agricultural revolutions
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What is the difference in births and deaths between developed and non-developed countries?
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In the most developed nations, the overall growth rates are near zero.
In the developing world, death rates have dropped and high birth rates persist |
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helps predict a pop.'s future growth
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Age structure
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the continuation of population growth as girls in the prereproductive age group reach their reproductive years
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population momentum
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An expanding pop. needs what 3 things?
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schools,
employment, and infrastructure. |
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an estimate of the amount of land required to provide the raw materials an individual or a nation consumes, including
food, fuel, water, housing, and waste disposal |
Ecological Footprint
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What is The ecological footprint of the United States?
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9 hectares per person
(twice what the US land and resources can support) |
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includes
– genetic diversity, – species diversity, and – ecosystem diversity |
biodiversity
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the raw material that makes microevolution and adaptation to the environment possible
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Genetic Diversity
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functions performed by an ecosystem that directly or indirectly benefit people, including
– air and water purification, – climate regulation, and – erosion control |
ecosystem services
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Name the 4 main factors responsible for loss of biodiversity
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– habitat destruction and fragmentation,
– invasive species, – overexploitation, and – pollution |
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What 4 human activities threaten biodiversity through habitat destruction?
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– agriculture,
– urban development, – forestry, and – mining |
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a contributing factor in declining populations of hundreds of species.
– Acid precipitation is a threat to ecosystems. – The global water cycle can transport pollutants from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems hundreds of miles away |
Pollution
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includes
– other individuals in its own population and – populations of other species living in the same area |
Biotic Environment
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An assemblage of species living close enough together for potential interaction
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Community
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interactions between species
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Interspecific interactions
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an organism’s total use of the
– abiotic and – biotic resources in its environment |
ecological niche
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states that if two species have an ecological niche that is too similar, the two species cannot coexist in the same place
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The competitive exclusion principle
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both species benefit from an interaction
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mutualism (+/+)
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refers to an interaction in which one species (the predator) kills and eats another (the prey)
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Predation (+/-)
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– camouflage and
– a way for prey to hide from predators |
Cryptic Coloration
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– a brightly colored pattern and
– a way to warn predators that an animal has an effective chemical defense |
warning coloration
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a form of defense in which one species looks like another species
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Mimicry
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the consumption of plant parts or algae by an animal
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Herbivory
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Name 3 plant defenses against Herbivores
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spines, thorns, toxins
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animals that live in or on a host from which they obtain nutrients
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Parasites
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disease-causing
– bacteria, – viruses, – fungi, and – protists |
Pathogens
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the feeding relationships among the various species in a community; determines the passage of energy and nutrients from plants and other photosynthetic organisms to herbivores and then to predators
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Trophic Structure
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The sequence of food transfer between trophic levels
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Food Chain
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The trophic level that supports all other trophic levels consists of autotrophs
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Producers
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All organisms in trophic levels above the producers are heterotrophs
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Consumers
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Herbivores which eat plants
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Primary consumers
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eat primary consumers
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Secondary Consumers
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eat secondary consumers
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Tertiary consumers
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eat tertiary consumers
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Quaternary Consumers
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the dead material left by all trophic levels
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detritus
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Consumers such as crows and vultures, feast on carcasses
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Scavengers
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Consumers such as earthworms and millipedes, primarily consume decaying organic material
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Detrivores
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mainly prokaryotes and fungi, secrete enzymes that digest molecules in organic material and convert organic materials into inorganic forms
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Decomposers
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When Toxins become concentrated as they pass through a food chain
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biological magnification
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The feeding relationships in a community are usually woven into elaborate ____ _____
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Food Webs
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eat
– producers and – consumers. |
Omnivores
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the number of different species in the community
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Species Richness
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the proportional representation of a species in a community
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relative abundance
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a species whose impact on its community is much larger than its total mass or abundance indicates
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Keystone Species
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episodes that damage biological communities, at least temporarily, by
– destroying organisms and – altering the availability of resources such as mineral nutrients and water. Examples include – storms, – fires, – floods, – droughts, and – human activities |
Disturbances
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a gradual replacement by other species
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Ecological succession
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begins
– in a virtually lifeless area with no soil, – in places such as – the rubble left by a retreating glacier or – lava flows |
Primary Succession
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occurs where a disturbance has
– destroyed an existing community but – left the soil intact |
Secondary Succession
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includes
– the community of species in a given area and – all the abiotic factors, such as – energy, – soil characteristics, and – water |
Ecosystem
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the passage of energy through the components of the ecosystem
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Energy Flow
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the use and reuse of chemical elements such as carbon and nitrogen within the ecosystem
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Chemical Recycling
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What happens to most of the sunlight that reaches the Earth?
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Most of this energy is absorbed, scattered, or reflected by the atmosphere or by Earth’s surface.
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The amount, or mass, of living organic material in an ecosystem
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Biomass
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The rate at which an ecosystem’s producers convert solar energy to the chemical energy stored in biomass
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Primary Production
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illustrates the cumulative loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain
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Pyramid of Production
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involves
– biotic components and – abiotic components from an abiotic reservoir where a chemical accumulates or is stockpiled outside of living organisms |
Biogeochemical cycles
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Name the 3 most important biogeochemical cycles
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– carbon,
– phosphorus, and – nitrogen |
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Where is Carbon's reservoir?
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In the atmosphere
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Cycling Carbon requires what two processes?
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Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
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Does phosphorous have an atmospheric component?
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No
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– an ingredient of proteins and nucleic acids and
– essential to the structure and functioning of all organisms and has two abiotic reservoirs: – the atmosphere and – the soil |
Nitrogen
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converts gaseous N2 to nitrogen compounds that plants can assimilate
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Nitrogen Fixation
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the foundation for
– finding solutions to these problems and – reversing the negative consequences of ecosystem alteration |
Ecological Research
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relatively small areas that have
– a large number of endangered and threatened species and – an exceptional concentration of endemic species, those that are found nowhere else |
Biodiversity hot spots
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– regional assemblages of interacting ecosystems,
– such as an area with forest, adjacent fields, wetlands, streams, and streamside habitats. |
Landscapes
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the application of ecological principles to the study of land-use patterns
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Landscape Ecology
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prominent features of landscapes, whether natural or altered by people, and
– have their own sets of physical conditions, such as – soil type and – surface features |
Edges Between Ecosystems
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is a narrow strip or series of small clumps of suitable habitat that connects otherwise isolated patches.
– can promote dispersal and help sustain populations and – are especially important to species that migrate between different habitats seasonally |
Movement Corridor
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uses living organisms to detoxify polluted ecosystems
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Bioremediation
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