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53 Cards in this Set
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heat sensing in rattlesnakes
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Use body heat to find prey – have organ on tops of their heads called “pits” that have cells sensory to heat
EXPERIMENT -orientation arena w/ hungry rattlesnake inside -made point source of heat on outside of “arena” so snake could definitely not see it, total darkness -snake struck at the wall of the arena within a few inches consistently near heat |
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shark detection of prey
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EXPERIMENT
-aquarium with shark in it, set up with sand in bottom, water flowing through tank into sand area 1) Bury live flatfish in sand – shark attacks immediately, finds and eats it 2) Buried dead flatfish (no electric fields) – shark first went where water was flowing out from the sand, then worked its way back until it found the fish – suggests sense of smell (carried by water) 3) Live fish wrapped in insulation (electric field blocked) – shark investigated outflow first 4) Buried set of electrodes in sand, no fish – shark went straight to the electrodes, suggests shark can detect electric field and use it primarily to find their food (smell is secondary) |
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blue jay foraging
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LOOK THIS UP IN THE BOOK - BAD NOTES
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optimality theories
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Optimality – doing something the best way
-shaped through trial and error (learning) and evolution (natural selection) - benefits - costs = net benefits |
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optimality in rufous hummingbirds
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TRIAL AND ERROR:
Migrate from Canada to Mexico Cannot store enough body fat to make whole trip, so they find habitat in Mountains in mid California to feed Birds change behavior while on these feeding grounds Scientists observed birds and measured territory size Captured bird at beginning of day and weighed them, let them feed all day, then measured weight at end of the day territory weight DAY 1 2000 m^2 0.2 g DAY 2 3000 m^2 0.28 g DAY 3 2500 m^2 0.4 g smaller territory size, more weight gain? Less flying around territory/energy spent defending it **bird was optimizing territory size for maximum weight gain!!** Optimum territory size changes every season, must be flexible for birds to maximize eating habits |
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optimality in crows
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EVOLUTION:
Problem – crows can often not fit food into their mouths or break shells Crows grab shell, fly into air, drop whelks on rocks, shell breaks and they eat Optimality – behavior should provide benefit and should be the BEST method Scientists watched crows Asked why crows always chose whelks of a certain size or bigger Collected all the whelks on the beach and sorted them into small, medium, and large Set these shells out in equal numbers and monitored beach every hour SM MD LG START 70 70 70 HR 1 70 70 62 HR 2 70 70 50 HR 3 70 69 42 HR 6 70 67 3 Large shells obviously preferred Crows passed over smaller shells even when larger ones were rare Large shells had 25% chance of breaking on any particular drop Pure chance, must land on certain angle to break Dropped from 5m – consistent height Small shell has to be dropped many more times – have not grown big projection that makes it more vulnerable to breaking Scientists dropped shells from different heights Shorter drops less effective, higher drops equally effective but take more energy to fly to 5m = OPTIMUM HEIGHT Benefit (calories gained from eating shell) – cost (calories spent handling the shell) = net benefit Large whelks have positive net benefit, but medium and small have negative net costs – they are not worth it THIS EQUATION IS BASIS OF OPTIMALITY THEORY |
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nutritional constraints to optimality - moose
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Constraints on optimality – keep animals from getting calories in the most efficient way
Make sure the animal is getting all the nutrition it needs In meadow surrounded by grass, go to a stream to eat grass which is very low in calories Provides moose with salt they need, then they move on to the higher calorie grass |
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nutritional constraints to optimality - squirrels
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Eats pine needles
Prefers fresh green pine needles rather than old one, goes from branch to branch in trees eating fresh needles Once fresh needles are gone, squirrel leaves tree and finds a new one – doesn’t always go to next nearest available tree – why? Avoiding a toxin – alpha-pinene, found in pine needles, different quantities in different trees Can smell or taste too much of the toxin in a tree, skip it over |
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nutritional constraints to optimality - jumping spiders
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don’t build webs, hunt for insects and jump on them
Find area with many insects, eat on or two, and then move on – why would it not eat all of the insects in the one spot??? Scientists raised female spiders with different diets – one with variety of many insect species and one with no variety Counted number of eggs that female spiders produced Females that ate variety of insects produced more eggs |
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predation constraint - chacma baboons
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Riparian habitat at bottom of rocky slope and short grass, on the other side there is dry riverbed
Monkeys sleep on rocky slope, every day they go through short grass and trees and feed on dry riverbed Riparian habitat much higher productivity and closer – why don’t monkeys feed there? LEAOPARDS – roost in trees of riparian habitat, easy to hide – predation risk very high In dry riverbed, leopards are much easier to spot in time to escape |
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predation constraint - leaf-cutter ants
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Use leaves of trees to stuff chambers in colony
Leaves rot, fungus grows Ants put fungus spores on leaves and eat it Farming their own food! Constantly needing to replenish supply of leaves 2 kind of worker ants Large – go out at night, much more efficient, can bring back larger pieces Small – go out during the day WHY does colony have smaller ants?? Parasitic wasp – find leaf cuter ants and injects egg into ant that eventually hatches and eats it from the inside out Large workers are big enough to be used by parasitic wasp, but the small ones aren’t Parasitic wasp only active during day – colony’s use of small ants during the day is a predation avoidance behavior! |
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predation constraint/risk management - Great tit
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seed eater – can CHOOSE behavior depending on environment and risk
takes seed from feeder, goes away from tree to eat it Stay near feeder until they believe it is unsafe Take seeds to more sheltered areas Can switch behaviors depending on proximity of predators Have trained falcon fly over are and birds will send out alarm call and change behavior to fly to shelter Trips to and from feeder take more energy, but keep birds safe from predators |
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predation consntraint/risk management - salmon
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When they hatch, the find hiding holes to wait for prey (insects)
When they see prey, they zip out of holes, grab prey, and go back into hiding Distance travelled to capture prey depends on value of the prey and risk of either being captured by a predator or being beaten by competition EXPERIMENT Aquarium set up with rocks and baby salmon in hiding Bugs dropped onto surface of water, salmon makes choice whether or not to go for it Plotted size of prey vs. distance travelled by the salmon The larger the prey, the more willing the salmon were to travel farther Situation 1 – control Situation 2 – held a picture of an adult brown trout up to glass where salmon could see it, repeated experiment Salmon willing to travel shorter distances for same size prey Took fewer risks when a predator was nearby Situation 3 – help mirror to the glass (salmon thinks there is another salmon – competition), repeated experiment Samon willing to travel LONGER distances for same size prey Took more risks when there was a competitor present CONDITIONAL STRATEGY – variety in behavior dependent on conditions of environment |
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frequency dependent selection in Perissodus
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Frequency dependent selection – whether a trait is selected for or not depends on its frequency in the population
Two kinds of Perissodus fish – slant on left jaw and slant on right jaw Population seesaws in terms of which type is dominant If one is less dominant, it will have less competition, be more successful, and reproduce more CYCLE When one type is dominant, prey learns to protect that side, so the minority becomes more successful Jaw slant is genetic |
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different circadian rhythms in drosphilia
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Periodgene – controls the length of the time that a rhythm takes
Per+ - about 24 hours (orange) Perl – about 27 hours (purple) perS – about 19 hours (blue) Per0 – null allele – doesn’t work at all, results in arrhythmia GENE CREATES RHYTHM |
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TIDAL RHYTHM - fiddler crabs
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Other rhythms besides circadian rhythms
Fiddler crab has tidal rhythm -feed on tidal mudflats -when tide comes out, crab crawls around on mud and gathers food -stops feeding and goes back to burrow before tide comes back up -How do they anticipate the return of the high tide? >program of activity pattern that is tuned to the tides (about 12 ½ hours) EXPERIMENT : crabs in lab put in aquarium with mud flat and water -crabs dig burrows in mud -after brought from the wild, crabs still showed tidal rhythm - lasted for weeks in the lab -tidal rhythm they show reflects tidal pattern from the environment they were taken from -tidal rhythms matched local patterns – suggests that rhythm can be tuned to local environmental cues -entrainment – when internal rhythm matched external cues |
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SEMILUNAR RHYTHM - grunion
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Grunion – semilunar rhythm – half a lunar cycle long, dependent on tides fluctuation every two weeks or so (highest tide to highest tide)
-fish swim up onto sand to lay eggs on sand where they will not be covered with water for two more weeks -when the water hits two weeks later, the eggs hatch and swim back out into the water -protects eggs from predation in water Neap tide – all tides remain relatively low Spring tide – sun and moon create super high tide or super low tide Two day window between spring tide and when tide reached point that it will reach again in two weeks >this two day window used to lay eggs This cycle generally used by animals who exploit the intertidal zone |
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LUNAR RHYTHM - kangaroo rats
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-animals didn’t forage if there was a moon
-stripes in graph show inactivity in kangaroo rats due to moonlight -seasonal effect – activity pattern goes away in late spring/summer when moon is set -summer – active all say long -switch from having lunar rhythm to nocturnal/diurnal rhythm to having no rhythm at all > reflects availability of food? When food is more scarce, they risk foraging even in moonlight -seem to be able to anticipate when moon is going to rise, don’t even come out of burrows |
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lunar/circannual rhythm - palolo worm
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Palolo worm – long, segmented bodies
>for most of the year, their body ends at the wide, earthworm looking segment >during mating season, they grow extra segment shown in picture >this part breaks off and swims up to shore on its own, where it spawns – eggs and sperm are released Problem – getting eggs and sperm to hook up in big wide ocean Solution – all individuals spawn at the same time Circannual rhythm – about a year long, season effect, hits when breeding season hits >breed in South Pacific – October to December Lunar rhythm >spawn on day of last quarter moon AT DAWN (suspected to be circadian rhythm) |
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rhythms and entrainment - crickets
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-to attract males, needs to sing at night when females are active
-needs to stop singing well before sunrise to give him time to forage for food -male starts singing a couple hours before nightfall, stops a couple hours before sunrise -If lab cricket is given 12 hrs of light and 12 of dark, he will sing the same time every day (bottom graph, approx 5 pm to 3 am) -if given constant conditions – all day of light – line shift over >EX : Day 1 – 5pm-3am, Day 2 – 6pm-4am, Day 3 7pm-5am >singing for same number of hours, but the timeline is shifting >cricket following own internal clock, which turns out to have a 25 hour day -cricket’s endogenous rhythm = 25 hours, free running in this situation Human beings: -natural circadian rhythm about 25 hours long on average *in the absence of environmental cues, the endogenous/free running rhythm runs a certain way; given the environmental cues the animal will tune its rhythm Rhythm – comes from hormones? -Short winged – active during day, mostly walk -Long winged – fly more, active at night -Bursts in activity correspond with bursts in JH Entrainment cue for cricket’s rhythm = light |
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rhythms and entrainment - squirrel
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Have to hibernate in the winter – must anticipate need to hibernate to be prepared when winter comes
Towards end of summer, start eating a lot and building up fat stores, prepare burrow, etc EXPERIMENT Take baby squirrels and put them in lab environmental chamber First cycle – go into hibernation around the same time, come out at about the same time Feed/remain active all summer Without any environmental cues, go into hibernation – individuals start to hibernate on their own schedule – these are their FREE RUNNING, ENDOGENOUS rhythms! Another batch of squirrels were given environmental cues Result – photoperiod is the entrainment cues that create natural rhythm DAY LENGTH and TEMPERATURE play roles If it is warm, no hibernation takes place |
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rhythms and entrainment - green anoles
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Male dewlap displays response to testosterone – testes regress in winter and grow back in the spring
Males – temperature increases in spring, triggers testes growth Females – temperature increases had no effect on ovarian growth EXPERIMENT Housed females either… and looked at ovarian growth alone or slow with females or slow with males fast One hypothesis – male making some sort of pheromone? Another – social effect? More experiments housed females in different situations Female housed with normal male – fast ovarian growth Female housed with castrated male (not producing testes) – slow ovarian growth Female housed with normal male with removed dewlap – slow ovarian growth Result – seeing courtship displays triggered ovarian growth in the female – visual signal and social cue |
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biological clock - bees
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Time sense – rough ability to track passage of time
EXPERIMENT -set up feeding stations in random areas around a hive >consisted of highly concentrated sugar water >filled feeding stations at different times of day -bees very good at remembering locations -after about a week the bees had also learned which stations had sugar water at which times, accuracy within 15 minutes -behvaior thought to be dependent on biological clock present in some cells |
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biological clock - silk moths
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Giant silk moths – both have circadian rhythm, but timing and activity patterns are different
EXPERIMENT – tried to test circadian rhythm of pupal emergence -in cecropia moth, animals emerged from pupal case to adult stage in the morning – right after sun rises -in pernyi moth, pupas emerged just before sun sets -Is there a biological clock, if so where is it???? 1) removed brain of pupa – still went through whole process of emerging into adulthood, but there was no trend in time of emergence >biological clock or something needed for it to function was destroyed 2) Transplanted brain to abdomen >resulted in original emergence pattern >necessary for biological clock – must be a hormone (brain has no neural connection while free floating in the abdomen, distributes hormone through blood) How does the brain know when to release hormone? What is the source of photosensitivity? 1) eyes detect light and cause release or hormone (unlikely because of rhythm functioning when brain was in abdomen) 2) brain itself has photoreceptors EXPERIMENT Shone light on different parts of the moth’s body and observed the reactions Put pupa in box with times lights, gave each side a different pattern For example: Side 1 (Lights on 9am-9pm) Side 2 (Lights on 9pm to 9am) Normal pupa – emerged around 9 am, suggests photosensitivity located in head (eyes AND brain) Transplanted brain of another pupa to abdomen – emerged just after 9 pm, suggests photosensitivity in the BRAIN Control > remove brain and put it back in the head – confirms brain’s role (emergence just after 9am) How to show that the timing mechanism itself was in the brain? EXPERIMENT – took pernyi and cecropia and did a cross species transplant (put brain of one into the other and vis versa) Results – moths emerged on schedule of other species (according to brain’s natural timing) |
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genetics behind biological clock in fruit flies
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-Cells themselves have rough circadian rythms
-negative feedback loop – drosphila >PERgene and TIM gene – together form complex that is a transcription factor >as soon as there is enough of the complex, it turns itself off >once the complex runs out, the genes are turned back on – endless loop -cryptochrome – another protein >light triggers cryptochrome > events that cause TIM protein to break down > no more complex (PER then becomes destroyed) >as long as light is shining on the cell, there are no PERTIM complexes >system works according to whether there is light or not |
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SCN - biological clock in rodents
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SCN – located in hypothalamus, plays part in basic functioning
> when damaged animals often lose rhythms EXPERIMENT Took hamster (nocturnal) and lab rat (usually diurnal) -took SCN from fetal hamster and transplanted it into an adult rat that lacked its own SCN -rat became nocturnal like the hamster Cells of SCN – VERY strong rhythm, stronger than most other cells |
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Conditional Strategies: Ruddy Turnstone
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Conditional strategy – NOT GENETIC
Individual alters its behavior based on what is working Ruddy Turnstone: divide into 3 different types of behaviors Dominant birds in the flock choose the seaweed – easiest food to get to! Birds behavior based on social hierarchy When top birds are taken away, the lower birds will move up Strategy changes based on what’s available! |
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crypsis
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the art of blending in – usually a combination of appearance & behavior
examples - look at beginning of Ch 11 slides |
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misdistraction
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distracting or lying to the predator
examples: Blue tailed skink lizard Has ability to break of tail Tail is bright blue, wiggles and moves on forest floor, while the rest of the lizard motors away and escapes Hognose snake Cryptic – blend in with forest floor If crypsis fails, have misdirection method Roll over onto back displaying belly and dislodges jaw to open mouth super wide, wiggles Startles predators, such as dogs, often won’t attack When even THIS isn’t effective, snake just flops and plays dead – looks more like rope Movement often make predators more likely to strike, so this is effective |
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inflating size
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convincing the predator that you are bigger & meaner than you really are
owl butterfly: Butterfly rests with wings folded When bird shows up, butterfly opens wings it opens wings and looks like much bigger animal, such as an owl Birds don’t want to rick owl predation, fly away owl: Female own at nest can’t leave because she can’t leave nestlings Spreads wings out, looks much bigger |
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Aposematic characteristics
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showing the predator that you are dangerous
ex: warning coloration in frogs, skunk |
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innate avoidance of warning coloration - kiskadees
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Innate avoidance of coral snakes (which are poisonous)
Presented kiskadees that had never encountered coral snakes with painted rods similar to different creatures Avoided the snakes |
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learned avoidance - blue jay
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EXPERIMENT: learned avoidance
Monarch butterfly and naïve blue jay Blue jay offered monarch butterfly, eats it, then throws up After this, blue jay never accepted/attacked another monarch butterfly Why do some animals have such innate mechanisms? Kiskadees evolved in area with coral snakes – avoidance likely selected for Environments of blue jays and monarchs environments overlap less, avoidance needed to be learned |
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Batesian Mimicry
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pretending you are dangerous
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batesian mimicry - monarch butterfly and viceroys
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Monarch butterflies are toxic
Costly biochemical process to eat these toxins and store them Viceroy butterflies don’t have ability to eat these toxins, but they have coloration much like monarch’s warning coloration LOOKS LIKE it’s poisonous Most birds won’t eat viceroy’s because they know not to eat monarchs |
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batesian mimicry - king snake and coral snake
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Coral snake vs. king snake – different patterns of coloration
- King snake safe, but has same scary black yellow red coloration What about king snakes in places without coral snakes? Made plasticine models Left it in nature for a week, counted teeth marks Had brown, cryptic models, kingsnake patterned models, and longitudinal stripes of same colors Did experiment in North Carolina (coastal plain vs piedmont) and Arizona (low elevation vs. high elevation) Had people who had no idea which regions they were from count the teeth marks in rods Brown cryptic rods – attacked equally in all areas Kingsnake pattern – attacked more in areas with no coral snakes Longitudinal – attacked only slightly less in coral snake areas vs no coral snake areas, and less than kingsnakes in no coral snake areas |
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advertisement - gazelles
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Gazelle – behavior called stotting
Gazelle starts bouncing when it spots a predator Very conspicuous, they do it whether they are by themselves or with the rest of the herd Does this so cheetah knows the gazelle sees it and will run away Basically saying “There’s no use, I see you, don’t even bother” Hypotheses and predictions: Alarm signal: should not stot alone Social cohesion: should aim display to other gazelles Confusion effect: should not stot alone Pursuit Deterrence: predator should stop the chase |
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size, armor, and weaponry
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ex: elephant, crayfish, elk
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hiding places
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chuckwalla:
-first defense is crypsis -vulnerable to predation, especially by birds -when they feel threatened, they run into a crevice and begin to swallow air – become so wedged into the crevice that nothing can pull them out -when they feel safe again, they let out a giant burp and can exit the crevice hyenas: -Use burrows/dens to protect babies -very vulnerable to lions |
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social defenses: dilusion effect
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safety in numbers alone (flocks of birds)
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social defenses: confusion effect
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-When school sees predator, they create fountain or just swim all different ways
-because the predator cannot choose a target, it rarely gets one -OR, target switching – manage to pick a target and aim for it, but another fish swims past and they get confused |
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social defenses: vigilance effect
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-many eyes are better than just two
-when many animals are looking for predators, it is safer than just one looking for predators Experiment: starlings in an aviary -constructed clothing line over the aviary with pulley system -dragged “predator” over aviary to see how soon birds noticed it -When there were more birds, each one spent less time in vigilence (and more time eating) AND reaction time was faster Goshawk success rate in hunting – MUCH lower in larger flocks -being in flocks provides some protection -could be confusion effect, vigilance effect, or something else? Measure reaction distance -in larger flocks, single birds were rarely caught because they were rarely taken by surprise -VIGILANCE EFFECT |
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social defenses: cooperative protection
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-when threatened by a pack of wolves, adults form shoulder-to-shoulder wall with young protected inside
-if wolves try to penetrate, they are kicked Other type of behavior – mobbing behavior -birds -smaller birds call attention of larger birds to help get rid of larger predator |
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types of animal travels
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Foraging trips
To and from a den or nest Along a regular route with no set den Dispersal “Natal Dispersal” “Post-breeding Dispersal” Seasonal migrations |
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dispersal restlessness - screech owls
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Possibilities:
-parents chase away the young so as to have enough food in their territory -biological rhythm – do this automatically Experiment: in the field -identified owl nests and fitted baby owls with radio transmitters to keep track of where they went -at first, owls stayed very close to home, fly out every night and come perch right where parents nest was before dawn -gradually travelled longer distances, didn’t return after 50 days -moment of natal dispersal 2nd experiment: isolated in laboratory -raised owls in lab in enclosures -fitted each with pedometer and examined activity -each owl showed increasing activity with age, peaked at 50 days then came back down -biological rhythm – same activity evident when social interaction/parental influence were removed -dispersal restlessness |
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why migrate?
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Allows exploitation of new habitats
Reduces competition at home STORY: Dispersers led to short-range migrants who developed (1) navigational abilities and (2) tendency to move from one region to another to exploit short-lived conditions. Short-range migrants set the stage for evolution of long-distance migrants. |
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reducing cost of migration
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birds flying in V's - preserves energy
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conditional strategy
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migrate only if you have to
European blackbirds migrate if they cannot expect to get enough food; this depends on SOCIAL STATUS which usually reflects age This is a Conditional Strategy |
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sun compass - european starling
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-trained bird in circular bin to go to SW bin for food
-Used mirrors to create a “false sun” 180 degrees away from where it normally would have been -Bird looked for food in NE bin Clock shift experiment: -birds must pay attention not only to sun position but also to time of day (because sun “moves” through sky) -E (6 a.m.) SE (9 a.m.) S (12 p.m.) SW (3 p.m.) and w (6 p.m.) -Suppose lights on at 3a.m. real time and off by 3p.m. If we test at 9a.m. real time, what direction should it go if using a sun compass? -Bird time will be 12 noon, thinks the sun will be located in S – will look for food so many degrees west of where the sun is |
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star compass - indigo bunting
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Planetarium:
1)Normal sky – S 2)180 degree rotated – N 3)Clockshift – S 4)Without north Star (not moving through sky) – S 5)Removed whole North Pattern (cluster of stars that make very small circle) - random |
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Asymmetry in Resource Value of a territory: eggfly butterfly
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Territory holder – or RESIDENT – has an advantage
Why is this? -In some cases, is more familiar with territory and can use this to advantage -Territory could be more valuable to the resident than it is to the intruder -The longer an individual has been on it’s territory, the bigger advantage that is seen -established relationships -doesn’t have a lot to lose by fighting hard for his territory – is older, doesn’t have to worry about future reproductive fitness -younger animal has more to lose in a fight in terms of reproductive fitness -if he loses the territory, he’s probably not strong enough to find another In this graph: Paired butterflies of different ages with fresh new intruders The older the butterfly was, the longer he was willing to fight for his territory COST always taken into account in any battle – reproductive fitness, ability to avoid predators, energy reserves, etc |
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dear enemy hypothesis - fiddler crab
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Fiddler crabs live on mudflaps, repel intruders from territories
-often, if one crab is involved in a territorial dispute, its neighbors will come to its aid -researchers looked at issues such as location and size of helping crabs **the helper crab is usually bigger than the intruder, which is bigger than the resident crab -the bigger crab is helping the smaller crab because he’s not such a bad enemy to have close to him – the crab is small enough to not be a threat -a new, bigger intruder, is a potential more relevant enemy DEAR ENEMY HYPOTHESIS – resident crab is an enemy, but a less bad enemy, and one more well known |
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Speckled Wood butterfly – arbitrary asymmetry or RHP assessment?
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Fly around searching for shafts of sunlight, when they find one they claim it for courtship territory
-possibly makes them more visible -If another butterfly comes around and sees a male displaying, he will go away -First come first serve? Intruder never challenged resident Experiment – released one butterfly into shaft with another -removed white butterfly with net and allowed black butterfly to become the owner -rereleased white butterfly back -white butterfly would try to fight, but usually lost -supported hypothesis that OWNER ALWAYS WINS -If kept in a box, instead of a net, the original owner almost always won Look at physiology of the butterfly – cold blooded, don’t move as well when they are cold -Butterflies kept in warmer boxes always won -The reason the original owners don’t even get challenged is because they are already warmed up!!!!!!! |
