Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 3

Front 1

Cell

Back 1

- is the basic living, structural and functional unit of the body.

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- cell division

Back 2

All cells arise from existing cells by .

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cytology

Back 3

- the study of the cell

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Plasma membrane

Back 4

- surrounds the cell and occurs as a lipid bilayer (two back-to-back lipid layers) with interspersed proteins.

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fluid mosaic

Back 5

- proteins can move within the lipids

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Phospholipids

Back 6

- orient in a bi-layer to make the basic framework of the membrane.
- represent about 75% of membrane lipids.
- serve to prevent the movement of many chemicals through the membrane.
- give the membrane flexibility.

Front 7

Glycolipids

Back 7

- help form an outer coat on the cell called the glycocalyx.

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Cholesterol

Back 8

- strengthens the membrane.

Front 9

Membrane proteins

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- they largely determine what function a cell will perform and can vary from cell to cell.

Front 10

Ion channels

Back 10

- have a water filled pore through which certain ions can pass.

Front 11

Transporters (carrier proteins)

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- move a certain polar chemical from one side to the other by changing the transporter’s shape.

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Receptor proteins

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- bond to a specific chemical in the extracellular (outside) fluid to signal the cell to carry out a specific function.

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Ligands

Back 13

- are molecules that bond to a specific receptor.

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Enzymes

Back 14

- speed up chemical reactions.

Front 15

Cell identity markers (glycoproteins)

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- help cells recognize each other.

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Linkers

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- anchor proteins of neighboring cells to each other or they anchor filaments to the plasma membrane.

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Selective permeability

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- the membrane allows some chemicals to pass through but prevents passage of others.

Front 18

Of those that pass through the cell membrane:

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-Chemicals that dissolve in lipids (nonpolar) and very small polar molecules pass through the lipids.
- Other molecules will pass through channels or transporters but these are usually very specific as to what they allow through.

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Fluidity

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- the membrane is flexible enough that it self-seals after being punctured.

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Chemical gradient (change over a space)

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- the selectively permeable membrane maintains different concentrations of various chemicals in the cytosol (fluid inside cell) vs. extracellular fluid.

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electrical gradient

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-in which the extracellular side is slightly positive and the cytosol side is slightly negative.

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Electrochemical

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-gradient is the combined concentration and electrical gradients

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Kinetic energy transport

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- is due to kinetic energy (energy of movement) of chemicals. Some chemicals will pass through the membrane as they are moving around and bump into it.

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Simple diffusion

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- is the movement of a chemical through the phospholipids or ion channel proteins of a membrane from a higher concentration to a lower concentration.

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Osmosis

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- is the movement of water molecules through a plasma membrane from a higher concentration of water to a lower concentration of water. Water can move through the phospholipids or through channel proteins called aquaporins.

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Facilitated diffusion (facilitated transport)

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- is the movement of a chemical through a transporter protein from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. This does not require energy

Front 27

Active transport (requires energy)

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- the cell uses energy to move a chemical from a lower concentration to a higher concentration (against its concentration gradient) through a transporter protein.

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Primary active transport

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- the movement of a chemical across a membrane from a lower concentration to a higher concentration.

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Secondary active transport

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- simultaneous movement of Na+ (or H+) and another chemical. This depends on a Na+ (or H+) concentration gradient which is maintained by primary active transport.

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Symporter

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- transporter protein that moves the other chemical in the same direction as Na+.

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Antiporter

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- transporter protein that moves the other chemical in the opposite direction to the Na+.

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Vesicular transport

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- the movement of a material by small membrane-bound spheres (vesicles).

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Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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- a specific ligand bonds to its receptor on the cell which stimulates that cell to engulf that ligand and form a vesicle.

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Phagocytosis

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- movement of solid particles into the cell by a vesicle.

Front 35

Bulk-phase endocytosis (Pinocytosis)

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- movement of fluid with dissolved solutes into the cell by a vesicle.

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Exocytosis

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- a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents to the outside.

Front 37

Transcytosis

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- a substance is moved through a cell, into one side and out the opposite side.

Front 38

Osmotic pressure

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is the pressure that must be applied to prevent osmotic movement (water movement) across a membrane. The higher the solute concentration of a solution, the greater its osmotic pressure.

Front 39

Tonicity

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is a measure of a solution’s ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content.(E.g. effects of different solutions on the red blood cell (RBC))

Front 40

normal saline

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solution is a 0.9% NaCl solution, which is isotonic to red blood cells.

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Intravenous (IV) solutions

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are usually isotonic to prevent damage to RBCs.

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Hypertonic solutions

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- can be used to treat cerebral edema. (There is too much water in the brain tissue so a more hypertonic blood will “draw” water from this tissue.)

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Hypotonic solutions

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- can be used to treat dehydration. (The tissues are dehydrated and blood is used as a vehicle to get more water to them.)

Front 44

Cytosol

Back 44

- the fluid inside the cell.
- surrounds the other structures.
- composed mostly of water
- the medium in which many metabolic reactions occur

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Cytoplasm

Back 45

- is the area between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It includes the cytosol and the organelles.

Front 46

Cytoskeleton

Back 46

- an internal network of protein filaments that serves to maintain cell’s shape, move structures within the cell, and also move the entire cell.

Front 47

Centrosome

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- serves as a center for organizing microtubules in dividing cells (mitotic spindle) and nondividing cells.

Front 48

Centrioles

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are paired cylinders arranged at right angles to one another

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Flagella

Back 49

- long whip-like appendages that serve in cell locomotion.

Front 50

Cilia

Back 50

- short bristle-like appendages
- serve to move materials over the surface of a stationary cell.

Front 51

Ribosomes

Back 51

- serve to directly produce the proteins. -tiny spheres that occur free or bound to endoplasmic reticulum -assemble amino acids into proteins

Front 52

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

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- is studded with ribosomes and acts as a site for synthesis of proteins and phospholipids. It extends from the nuclear membrane

Front 53

Smooth ER

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- acts as the major site for synthesis of lipids in general, it also detoxifies toxins.

Front 54

Golgi complex

Back 54

- 4-6 stacked flattened membranous sacs. Serves to process, package, and deliver proteins and lipids to the plasma membrane for incorporation into the membrane or for secretion.

Front 55

Lysosomes

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- are vesicles (small membrane-bound spheres) that contain digestive enzymes to break down materials for the cell.

Front 56

Peroxisomes

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- are vesicles that contain enzymes that detoxify materials.

Front 57

Proteosomes

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- breakdown unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins in the cytosol

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Mitochondria (power house)

Back 58

- serve to produce ATP using energy from the breakdown of food (cell respiration).
- self-replicate using their own circular DNA
- genes (DNA) are usually inherited only from the mother.

Front 59

Nucleus

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- contains the genes which control the structure and many activities of the cell.

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Nuclear envelope

Back 60

- the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus, it has pores that allow water and dissolved materials in and out.

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Nucleoli

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- smaller spheres in the nucleus that produce the ribosomes.

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Chromosome

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- a single long DNA molecule or two DNAs that are duplicated and attached to each other

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Chromatid

Back 63

- half of a duplicated chromosome

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Chromatin

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- the material that is composed of DNA and histone proteins.

Hint 64

(Chromosomes are composed of ____________)

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Gene

Back 65

- is a segment of DNA, which controls one or more traits by coding for a certain polypeptide (part of a protein)

Front 66

Genome

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- the total genetic information carried in a cell or an organism (all of their genes).

Front 67

Transcription - introns

Back 67

- the genetic information on the DNA is passed to a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.
-(mRNA is produced from a DNA template) The DNA of the gene unwinds and bonds between the bases break.
- A mRNA molecule forms off of one side of the DNA (sense strand) by matching their bases.
- In this process the mRNA picks up the genetic information from the DNA.
- The sequences of base triplets of DNA serve as templates for copying the info to mRNA.
- is catalyzed by the enzyme RNA polymerase.
- Segments of mRNA called ______ are cut out and remaining segments called exons are spliced together before the mRNA leaves the nucleus. Different exons can be spliced together to make a greater variety of proteins.

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introns

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are Segments of mRNA cut out

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exons

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remaining segments of mRNA are spliced together before the mRNA leaves the nucleus.

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G1 phase (gap phase 1)

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- the cell produces new organelles to replace those that were lost to the other cell in cell division in this phase

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S phase (S = synthesis)

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- the chromosomes are duplicated (new DNA is synthesized) in this phase

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G2 phase (gap phase 2)

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- proteins needed for cell division are produced in this phase

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M phase (M = mitosis)

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- nucleus divides (mitosis) and the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis).

Front 74

Cyclins

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- proteins that increase in concentration in between cell divisions to activate other chemicals (Cdks) which stimulate division.

Front 75

Cyclin

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- dependent protein kinases (Cdks)- proteins that stimulate replication of DNA, or prophase to begin.

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Apoptosis

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- is a normal, genetically programmed cell death that occurs in cells scattered throughout a tissue.

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Necrosis

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- a pathological cell death that results from tissue injury of many adjacent cells, and usually it stimulates an immune response

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Cancer

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- an abnormal, out of control, division of cells which tends to spread to other parts of the body.

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Tumor (neoplasm)

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- excess tissue that develops from uncontrolled cell proliferation.

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Metastasis

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- the spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body.

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Benign tumor

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- an abnormal growth of cells that has not spread.

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Malignant tumor

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- an abnormal growth of cells that has spread to other parts of the body.

Front 83

glycocalyx

Back 83

allows the cell to:
- protect itself from being digested.
- become sticky to hold it to other cells.
- or hold a fluid layer creating a slippery surface

Front 84

Osmosis

Back 84

- movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

Water moves from an area of [lower solute] to [higher solute]
- occurs only when the membrane is permeable to water but not to certain solutes.

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[lower solute]
[higher solute]

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in osmosis Water moves from an area of _____ to _____

Front 86

Translation
(anticodon)
(codon)

Back 86

- the base sequence along the mRNA is used (decoded) to make a protein that has a certain sequence of amino acids (A.A.s).
- Ribosomes bond with mRNA and move along it.
- Each transfer RNA (tRNA) has a certain sequence of 3 bases exposed at one end _________, and at the other end contains a certain A.A.
- As the ribosomes move along the mRNA it helps the corresponding tRNA bond to each triplet of bases on the mRNA called _______.
The amino acid on the new tRNA forms a peptide bond with the amino acid next to it and the peptide chain grows (protein) as again a new tRNA again arrives

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Somatic cell division (mitosis)

Back 87

- occurs in all body cells except for those cells that directly produce gametes (sperm or egg).
-produce new cells for growth or replacement of dead and injured cells.
- produces 2 daughter cells, each with the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the original mother cell.

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diploid number

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- two of each kind of chromosome

Front 89

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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stages of somatic sell division in order

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Prophase:

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- Chromosomes condense (thicken)
- Nuclear envelope disappears
- Nucleoli disappear
- Mitotic spindle forms
- Centrosomes move to opposite poles

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Metaphase:

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- chromosomes line up in a single row along the middle (equator)of the cell.

Front 92

Anaphase:

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- chromosomes separate at their centromeres and one copy of each travels to a separate pole.

Front 93

Telophase:

Back 93

Chromosomes unwind into more diffuse structures
Nuclear envelope reappears
Nucleoli reappear
Mitotic spindle disappears

Front 94

Reproductive cell division (meiosis)

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- produces gametes (sperm or egg) that will unite to form a new individual in sexual reproduction.
- cuts the chromosome number in half in the gametes to keep the chromosome number constant from generation to generation.
- serves to increase genetic variation in a population of individuals.

Front 95

aging

Back 95

- Some cells are not replaced because they won’t divide or divide a limited number of times.

- Telomeres at ends of chromosomes erode with each mitosis event. This contributes to cell death.
-Loss of elasticity, stiffening, due to glucose forming cross links between proteins.
-Free radicals damage cells by oxidizing(stealing e- s from) lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids.
-Autoimmune responses

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Autoimmune responses

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- as cells age, their cell identity markers sometimes change, which stimulates the immune response to attack those cells.

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cancer

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The root cause are mutations in the genes that normally control cell division, to form oncogenes.

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Carcinogens

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- chemicals or radiation that cause cell mutations.

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oncogene

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- produces an abnormal protein that stimulates cell division. (e.g. abnormal cell division signals or receptor proteins)
- Or can produce a growth factor in excessive amounts or at the wrong time.
-A chromosomal rearrangement occurs to bring a regulator gene near a dormant _______ to activate it.

Front 100

virus

Back 100

A _______ may splice an oncogene into a cell’s DNA when it invades that cell.

Front 101

Tumor suppressor genes

Back 101

inhibit cell division, but if a mutation occurs to make them nonfunctional, then cancer can develop.

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epidemiology

Back 102

science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted in humans

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pharmacology

Back 103

science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment of disease

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anaplasia

Back 104

the loss of tissue differentiation and function that is characteristic in most malignancies

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atrophy

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decrease in size of cells
susequent decrease in the size of the affected tissue or organ
wasting away

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displasia

Back 106

alteration in size, shape, and organization of cell due to chronic irritation or inflammation that may progress to neoplasia or revert to normal if irritation is removed

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hyperplasia

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increase in the number of cells due to cell division

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hypertrophy

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increase in the size of cells without cell division

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metaplasia

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transformation of one type of cell into another

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progeny

Back 110

offspring or decendents

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proteomics

Back 111

the study of all an organisms proteins in order to identify the proteins produced - so that drugs can be designed to alter protein activity to help in the treatment/diagnosis of a disease

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tumor marker

Back 112

substance introduced in to circulation by tumor cells that indicates the presence and what type of tumor