Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 2

Front 1

- are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element.

Back 1

Atoms

Front 2

- atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons.

Back 2

Isotopes

Front 3

- atoms or groups of atoms that have a positive or negative charge.

Back 3

Ions

Front 4

- a combination of two or more atoms covalently bonded together.

Back 4

Molecule

Front 5

- a substance that contains two or more different elements.

Back 5

Compound

Front 6

- the basic building blocks of all matter (at least 112 know). They are composed of a single kind of atom and cannot be broken down to simpler substances by ordinary means.

Back 6

Element

Front 7

- an unstable atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in its outermost shell.

Back 7

Free radical

Front 8

- biologically important atoms with more than one shell are most stable when they have 8 electrons in their outer shell. Therefore, they tend to bond with atoms to obtain 8 electrons in their outer shell.

Back 8

Octet rule

Front 9

- are electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.

Back 9

Valence electrons

Front 10

- electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another.

Back 10

Ionic bonds

Front 11

- electrons are shared between the atoms. The most common chemical bond found in the body and forms most of the body’s structure.

Back 11

Covalent bonds

Front 12

- the electrons are not shared equally therefore there is a partial charge (delta d- and d+) on the molecule.

Back 12

Polar covalent bond

Hint 12

(E.g. Water)

Front 13

- the electrons are shared equally and therefore there is no charge at that bond.

Back 13

Nonpolar covalent bond

Front 14

- the atoms in the bond share one pair of electrons.

Back 14

Single covalent bond

Front 15

- the atoms in the bond share two pairs of electrons.

Back 15

Double covalent bond

Front 16

- the atoms in the bond share three pairs of electrons.

Back 16

Triple covalent bond

Front 17

- is a bond between a partial positive charged (d+) hydrogen on one molecule and a partial negative charged (d-) atom on that same molecule or on a nearby molecule.

Back 17

Hydrogen bond

Front 18

- is a compound that dissociates (separates) into positive and negative ions in a solution.

Back 18

Electrolyte

Hint 18

(E.g. Na+ Cl- dissolved in water)

Front 19

- is a positive charged ion

Back 19

Cation

Hint 19

(e.g. Na+)

Front 20

- is a negative charged ion

Back 20

Anion

Hint 20

(e.g. Cl-)

Front 21

- occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between reactant atoms to make products.

Back 21

chemical reaction

Front 22

increase the concentration of reactants - increase the temperature - The presence of catalysts (e.g. enzymes).

Back 22

The rate of chemical reactions may be increased by:

Front 23

- is the capacity to do work.

Back 23

Energy

Front 24

- energy is released during this reaction.

Back 24

Exergonic reaction

Front 25

- requires (uses up) energy as it occurs.

Back 25

Endergonic reaction

Front 26

- 2 or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger molecule. (Are usually endergonic)

Back 26

Synthesis reaction (anabolism)

Front 27

- larger molecules are broken down into smaller parts. (Are usually exergonic)

Back 27

Decomposition reactions (catabolism)

Front 28

- parts of the molecules are switched during a reaction.

Back 28

Exchange reaction

Hint 28

(Part decomposition and part synthesis reaction)

Front 29

- the products of a reaction can convert back into the original reactants.

Back 29

Reversible reaction

Front 30

- always contains carbon and usually contains hydrogen and always have covalent bonds. The carbons can form short or long chains of bonds with itself. Large carbon compounds do not dissolve easily in water, making them useful for building body structures. Since organic compounds tend to have “carbon backbones”, functional groups such as amino-, carboxyl- and phosphate- can be added that change the chemical properties of the molecule.

Back 30

Organic Compounds

Front 31

- generally lack carbon and are structurally simple and small. They can have ionic or covalent bonds

Back 31

Inorganic Compounds

Front 32

- a larger molecule is broken down into smaller ones and water is used or broken up. Common in digestion (breakdown) of large nutrient molecules so they can be absorbed into the body.

Back 32

Hydrolysis reaction

Front 33

- smaller molecules are joined to make a larger one and water is produced (condensation).

Back 33

Dehydration synthesis reaction

Front 34

- are chemicals that when dissolved in water dissociate (separate) into hydrogen ions (H+) and anions.

Back 34

Acids

Hint 34

(e.g. HCl)

Front 35

- are chemicals that when dissolved in water dissociate into hydroxide ions (OH-) and cations.

Back 35

Bases

Hint 35

(e.g. KOH)

Front 36

- are chemicals that when dissolved in water dissociate into cations and anions other than H+ or OH-.

Back 36

Salts

Hint 36

(e.g. KCl)

Front 37

- the most abundant chemical compound in the body.

Back 37

Water

Front 38

-an excellent solvent.

Back 38

Water

Front 39

- serves as a lubricant.

Back 39

Water

Front 40

- The temperature does not readily change in response to the external environment. This helps maintain homeostasis of body temperature.

Back 40

Water

Front 41

- participates in chemical reactions .

Back 41

Water

Front 42

- is a relative measure of the concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution. It involves a scale from 0-14 - Each increase of one on this scale is a tenfold decrease in H+ concentration

Back 42

pH

Front 43

- pH of 7

Back 43

Neutral

Front 44

- pH of less than 7 (more H+ than OH-)

Back 44

acidic

Front 45

– pH of greater than 7 (more OH-)

Back 45

basic

Front 46

- serve to keep the pH of an internal environment relatively constant. A major way they do this is to convert a strong acid or base into a weak acid or base.

Back 46

Buffer systems

Hint 46

(Buffer against changes in pH)

Front 47

- large organic molecules that consist of chains of similar smaller molecules called monomers that are covalent bonded together

Back 47

Polymers

Front 48

-molecules that have the same number and kinds of atoms, but the atoms are arranged differently.

Back 48

Isomers

Hint 48

(The sugars glucose and fructose both have the formula C6H12O6)

Front 49

- these make up only around 2-3% of body weight but are very important.

Back 49

Carbohydrates

Hint 49

(e.g. simple sugars and polysaccharides)

Front 50

- typically have a C:H:O ratio of 1:2:1 and usually occur as a single ring (monosaccharides) or 2 rings connected end to end (disaccharides) or tens to hundreds of rings (polysaccharides).

Back 50

Carbohydrate Structure

Front 51

- typically serve to provide a ready source of energy (Esp. glucose) or serve in short term food energy storage (Esp. glycogen). Also they make up parts of cells Also they make up parts of cells. The ribose in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Back 51

Carbohydrate Function

Front 52

- make up 18-25% of body weight in lean adults.

Back 52

Lipids

Front 53

- typically have twice as much hydrogen as carbon but have less oxygen than carbon.

Back 53

Lipid Structure

Front 54

- usually do not dissolve in water.

Back 54

Hydrophobic

Front 55

- water soluble

Back 55

Hydrophilic

Front 56

-hydrophilic (water soluble) proteins.

Back 56

lipoproteins

Front 57

- are the most plentiful lipids in the body and in the diet - long-term food energy storage.

Back 57

Triglycerides

Hint 57

(neutral fats and oils)

Front 58

- have hydrogen’s on each carbon and produce a greater risk of cardiovascular disease.

Back 58

saturated fats

Front 59

- reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids

Back 59

Mono and polyunsaturated fats

Hint 59

- two polyunsaturated essential fatty acids that are particularly healthful.

Front 60

- serve to make up a major part of cell membranes.

Back 60

Phospholipids

Front 61

- serve as many of the hormones (e.g. sex hormones), and also cholesterol serves as 0part of cell membranes.

Back 61

Steroids

Front 62

- includes prostaglandins that do many things and leukotrienes, which contribute to the inflammation response.

Back 62

Eicosanoids

Front 63

- make up 12-18% of a lean adult’s body and are particularly important in that they are the mechanism through which genes do their work.

Back 63

Proteins

Front 64

- are made of long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids.

Back 64

Protein Structure

Front 65

- A chain that is 4-9 amino acids long.

Back 65

peptide

Front 66

- A chain that is more than 9 amino acids long

Back 66

polypeptide

Front 67

The shape of a protein is critical to its function - When the shape is altered, we say that the protein has been ____________

Back 67

denatured

Hint 67

protein has been denatured.

Front 68

- Form structured framework of part of the body. Function as hormones to regulate physiological processes. Serve to move muscles. Serve in the immune response Transport oxygen and other chemicals. Act as enzyme to speed up chemical reactions.

Back 68

Protein Function

Front 69

- is a double helix. It consists of a long helical (bedspring) shaped molecule with 2 sides (like a ladder).

Back 69

DNA Structure

Front 70

- chemicals that bond in pairs to form the steps of the ladder. Adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine

Back 70

nitrogenous bases

Front 71

______________ bonds to thymine

Back 71

Adenine

Front 72

________________ bonds to guanine.

Back 72

cytosine

Front 73

- it contains the genes, each of which codes for the synthesis of a specific protein.

Back 73

DNA Function

Front 74

- is a long single-stranded molecule (like a ladder cut down the middle). It has the bases adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine but they are not paired.

Back 74

RNA Structure

Front 75

-serves in protein synthesis.

Back 75

RNA Function

Front 76

- is a small molecule with the adenine base, ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups connected by high energy bonds.

Back 76

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) Structure

Front 77

- serves to temporarily carry energy and release it when needed by the cell (energy currency).

Back 77

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) Function

Front 78

- speed up the rate of chemical reactions in the body; Also they are a major mechanism by which the genes control the body’s chemistry. A gene causes the production of a certain _______, which causes a certain chemical reaction

Back 78

enzymes

Front 79

-increasing frequency of collisions, lowering the activation energy and properly orienting the colliding molecules.

Back 79

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by

Front 80

- act as catalysts by carrying out a reaction and then are free to carry out another.
- One molecule typically carries out thousands of reactions per second.
- are specific to a certain substrate because their shape at their active site only allows that substrate to fit in and react.
- are subject to cell controls (e.g. are only produced when their gene is activated, also chemicals in the cell may enhance or inhibit them).

Back 80

Enzyme Characteristics

Front 81

- the large protein portion of an enzyme

Back 81

Apoenzyme

Front 82

- the nonprotein portion of an enzyme

Back 82

Cofactor

Front 83

- An organic cofactor

Back 83

Coenzyme

Front 84

The four elements that make up approximately ___% of the body are ________, _______, ______, ______

Back 84

96
oxygen
carbon
hydrogen
nitrogen

Front 85

The chemical symbol of Oxygen is

Back 85

O

Front 86

The chemical symbol of Carbon is

Back 86

C

Front 87

The chemical symbol of Hydrogen is

Back 87

H

Front 88

The chemical symbol of Nitrogen is

Back 88

N

Front 89

___________ are located in the nucleous and have a positive charge

Back 89

Protons

Front 90

___________ are located in the nucleous and have a neutral charge

Back 90

neutrons

Front 91

___________ are located in the outside of the nucleous and have a negative charge

Back 91

electrons