Aims Of Argument: Chapter 1 Review

Front 1

What is rhetorical context?

Back 1

The knowledge of circumstances required to understand a text and therefore to respond to it well.

Example: information about the time and place in which it was written, who published it, and the ongoing debate to which it contributed.

Front 2

What is rhetoric?

Back 2

The art of argument; techniques that convince or persuade.

Front 3

What are the qualifications of a mature reasoner?

Back 3

Also known as: argument.

As contrasted with much undisciplined popular reasoning a mature reasoner is:

1. Is well-informed
2. Self critical and open to constructive criticism from others
3. Argues with reader's needs and concerns in mind
4. Has a sense of context or the circumstances to which an argument must respond.

Front 4

What are the four aims of argument?

Back 4

1. Arguing to inquire

2. Arguing to convince

3. Arguing to persuade

4. Arguing to mediate

Front 5

What's the purpose of arguing to inquire?

Back 5

Seeking truth; it's not a matter of defending what we already believe but questioning it.

Front 6

What's the purpose of arguing to convince?

Back 6

Seeks assent to a thesis, centes on making a case.

Ultimately, to reach a conclusion known as a conviction (earned opinion).

Front 7

What is a conviction?

Back 7

An earned opinion achieved through careful thought, research, and discussion.

Front 8

What's the purpose of arguing to persuade?

Back 8

Like arguing to convince, persuasion attempts to earn agreement - but wants more. It wants action.

Example: Mercedez-Bens not only aims to convince that they sell quality cars, but that you should go out and buy one.

Front 9

What does arguing to persuade primarily appeal to?

Back 9

Readers' emotions.

Often uses photographs to show poverty, devices of poetry, patterns of sound, repetitions, metaphors, etc. to arouse emotions.

Front 10

Can arguing to persuade rely solely on reasoning?

Back 10

No, it must appeal in broader, deeper ways such as emotion.

Front 11

How does personality affect arguing to persuade?

Back 11

A persuasive writer attempts to represent something larger or higher than them.

i.e. if war veteran and hero like John McCain naturally brings patriotism to the table.

Front 12

What's the purpose of arguing to mediate?

Back 12

Seeks consensus; by the time we find ourselves in a situation where our aim is to argue to mediate we will have already attempted to convince an opponent to settle a conflict.

Front 13

What does arguing to mediate challenge more than any of the other aims of argument?

Back 13

Interpersonal skills. Each side must listen closely to understand not just the other's case but also the emotional commitments and underlying values.

Front 14

Whenever we encounter an opinion supported by reasons and asking us to agree, what aim of argument is being dealt with?

Back 14

Arguing to convince.

Front 15

What does inquiry center upon?

Back 15

Centers on questions and involves some legwork to answer them - finding the facts, doing research.

Front 16

Give every day examples of arguing to inquire.

Back 16

It's true whether deciding what car to buy, what major to choose, what candidate to vote for, etc.

Front 17

What did ancient Greeks call argument to inquire?

Back 17

Ancient Greeks called argument as inquiry dialectic; today we might think of it as dialogue or serious conversation which isn't confrontational at all.

Front 18

What does it mean that mature reasoners know their arguments' contexts?

Back 18

They recognize that what we argue about now was argued about in the past and they will be argued about in the future. Also that our contributions to these ongoing conversations are influenced by who we are.

Front 19

What does it mean that mature reasoners argue with their audiences or readers in mind?

Back 19

They make a sincere effort to understand and connect with other people and other points of view because they don't see differences of opinion as obstacles to their points of view.

Front 20

What does it mean that mature reasoners are self-critical and open to constructive criticism?

Back 20

They balance their passionate attachment tot heir opinions with willingness to evaluate and test them against differing opinions, acknowledge when good points are made against their opinions, and even when presented with good reasons for doing so, change their minds.

Front 21

Why is it not the attribute of a mature reasoner to think of opinions solely as our own or like personal property?

Back 21

Because all arguments have histories and futures; other people have argued more or less about what we currently argue. Secondarily, they have a future and arguments will be made with knowledge we lack now.

Front 22

What is the basic premise of argument?

Back 22

Mature reasoners do not argue just to argue, rather, they use it to accomplish something.

Front 23

What's the importance of knowing the past and future of an argument?

Back 23

To some extent we must know what is going on now and what other people are saying to make our own reasoning.

Secondarily, we cannot know the future but we can imagine the drift of the argument and where it might be heading based upon developments and knowledge.

Front 24

What is one of the main reasons that no progress will be made in an argument?

Back 24

Predominantly because the people making the argument have made no effort to reach their audience.

When we do not take other points of view seriously, we cannot make our points of view appealing to those who do not already share them.

Front 25

What do humans typically have the strongest opinions over?

Back 25

Matters in which they have the least knowledge of. Ignorance and inflexibility go together because it's easy to form an opinion when few or none of the facts get in the way and we can just assert our prejudices.

Front 26

Is it easier or harder to make arguments of topics in which we're knowledgeable of?

Back 26

The more we know about most topics, the harder it is to be dogmatic. We'll find ourselves changing or at least refining our opinions more or less continuously as we gain more knowledge.

Front 27

What is Leonard Pitts's argument an example of?

Back 27

A genre of of written persuasion.

Front 28

What are claims?

Back 28

Answers to questions.

Front 29

Who was the Greek goddess of persuasion? What was it associated with?

Back 29

Peitho; associated with seduction and love affairs.

Front 30

Who is the Greek god of love?

Back 30

Eros

Front 31

What does argument as mature reasoning mean?

Back 31

1. Defending not the first position you might take on an issue, but the best position determined through open-minded inquiry.

2. Providing reasons for holding that position that can earn the respect of an audience.

Front 32

What does argument mean?

Back 32

Mature reasoning

Front 33

What technically does "mature" mean in the term "mature reasoning"

Back 33

1. Worked out fully by the mind

2. Reached after full consideration of all the consequences.

Front 34

What technically does "reasoning" mean in the term "mature reasoning"

Back 34

1. An opinion plus a reason(s) for holding that opinion.

Front 35

What is the popular definition or interpretation of "rhetoric"

Is it accurate?

Back 35

Empty verbiage - the art of sounding impressive while saying little or verbal deception.

No, it's not accurate. It's instead an art of how we go about arguing with some degree of success.