2015 Mcat Psychology And Sociology Set

Front 1

He had one of the earliest theories that behavior, intellect, and even personality might be linked to brain anatomy. He developed the doctrine of phrenology.

Back 1

Franz Gall (1758 –1828)

Front 2

He was the first person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain. He did this by extirpation on rabbits and pigeons. His work led to his assertion that the brain had specific parts for specific functions.

Back 2

Pierre Flourens (1794– 1867)

Front 3

His view was among the first theories that formed functionalism, a system of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.

Back 3

William James (1842 –1910)

Front 4

This is an important name in functionalism. Criticized the concept of the reflex arc. He believed that psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment.

Back 4

John Dewey ( 1859 –1952)

Front 5

He added to the knowledge of physiology by examining the behavioral deficits of people with brain damage. He was the first person to demonstrate that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions.

Back 5

Paul Broca (1824– 1880)

Front 6

He was the first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse. By actually measuring the speed of nerve impulses in terms of reaction time, He is often credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences.

Back 6

Hermann von Helmholtz ( 1821– 1894)

Front 7

He first inferred the existence of synapses.

Back 7

Sir Charles Sherrington (1857– 1952)

Front 8

Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.

Back 8

Sensory neurons (also known as afferent neurons)

Front 9

transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.

Back 9

Motor neurons (also known as efferent neurons)

Front 10

They are found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three types of neurons.

Back 10

Interneurons

Front 11

composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Back 11

central nervous system (CNS)

Front 12

made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord, such as the 12 pairs of cranial and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

Back 12

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Front 13

consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles.

Back 13

somatic nervous system

Front 14

Afferent neurons ascend in the cord toward the brain; efferent neurons exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body.

Back 14

Afferent neurons ascend in the cord toward the brain; efferent neurons exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body.

Front 15

generally regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions. In other words, the ___ manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands.

Back 15

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Front 16

The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the ____ and ___ nervous system.

Back 16

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

Front 17

Increases heart rate, Redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion, Increases blood glucose concentration, Relaxes the bronchi, Decreases digestion and peristalsis, Dilates the eyes to maximize light intake, Releases epinephrine into the bloodstream.

Back 17

Sympathetic Nervous System

Front 18

The brain is covered with a thick sheath of connective tissue called the _____, which help protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid.

Back 18

meninges

Front 19

The meninges are composed of three layers:

Back 19

the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater.

Front 20

The human brain can be divided into three basic subdivisions:

Back 20

the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

Front 21

the hindbrain and midbrain form the:

Back 21

brainstem

Front 22

a group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory.

Back 22

limbic system

Front 23

the _____ is associated with everything from language processing to problem-solving, and from impulse control to long-term planning.

Back 23

Cerebral cortex

Front 24

The Cerebral cortex, Basal ganglia, Limbic system, Thalamus, and Hypothalamus are all part of which major brain division?

Back 24

Forebrain

Front 25

The Inferior and superior colliculi are all part of which major brain division?

Back 25

Midbrain

Front 26

The Cerebellum, Medulla oblongata, and Reticular formation are all part of which major brain division?

Back 26

Hindbrain

Front 27

Located where the brain meets the spinal cord, the ____ controls balance, motor coordination , breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking. In short, manages vital functioning necessary for survival.

Back 27

hindbrain (rhombencephalon)

Front 28

During prenatal development, the hindbrain divides to form the divides to form these two divisions.

Back 28

myelencephalon (which becomes the medulla oblongata) and the metencephalon (which becomes the pons and cerebellum)

Front 29

The _____ is a lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Back 29

medulla oblongata

Front 30

The _____ lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla.

Back 30

pons

Front 31

At the top of the hindbrain, mushrooming out of the back of the pons, is the _____, a structure that helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements. Damage to the cerebellum causes clumsiness, slurred speech, and loss of balance.

Back 31

cerebellum

Front 32

the ________, which receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body. The ______ is associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli.

Back 32

midbrain (mesencephalon)

Front 33

The _____ receives visual sensory input, and the _____ receives sensory information from the auditory system in the midbrain.

Back 33

superior colliculus, inferior colliculus

Front 34

This brain division is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Among its other functions , the forebrain is associated with emotion and memory.

Back 34

forebrain (prosencephalon)

Front 35

During prenatal development, the prosencephalon divides to form the _____ and the _____.

Back 35

telencephalon (which forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system), diencephalon (which forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland)

Front 36

refers to the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.

Back 36

Neuropsychology

Front 37

involves placing several electrodes on the scalp. Broad patterns of electrical activity can thus be detected and recorded.

Back 37

electroencephalogram (EEG)

Front 38

detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain . This method relies on the assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates certain regions of the brain, the blood flow to those regions increases.

Back 38

regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

Front 39

The _____ is a structure within the forebrain that serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell. After receiving incoming sensory impulses, it sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex and is therefore a sensory “way station.”

Back 39

thalamus

Front 40

The _____ subdivided into the lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus, serves homeostatic functions, and is a key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior, and sexual behavior. It also helps control some endocrine functions, as well as the autonomic nervous system. Receptors in the _____ regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance.

Back 40

hypothalamus

Front 41

Feeding, Fighting, Flighting, and (Sexual) Functioning

Back 41

Functions of the Hypothalamus— The Four Fs:

Front 42

This brain region is referred to as the hunger center

Back 42

lateral hypothalamus (LH)

Front 43

This brain region is identified as the “satiety center,” and provides signals to stop eating.

Back 43

ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

Front 44

This brain region controls sexual behavior as well as regulates sleep and body temperature.

Back 44

anterior hypothalamus

Front 45

The _____ is comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also called vasopressin) and oxytocin.

Back 45

posterior pituitary

Front 46

The _____ is the key player in several biological rhythms. Most notably, the _____ secretes a hormone called melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms. It receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight.

Back 46

pineal gland

Front 47

The _____ coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information (via the extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and the spinal cord. It helps make our movements smooth and our posture steady .

Back 47

basal ganglia

Front 48

The_____ is part of the basal ganglia and gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system.

Back 48

extrapyramidal motor system

Front 49

The _____ comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain and is primarily associated with emotion and memory. Its primary components include the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus.

Back 49

limbic system

Front 50

Within the limbic system, the _____ contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain. Mild stimulation of the _____ is reported to be intensely pleasurable; there is an association between these nuclei and addictive behavior.

Back 50

septal nuclei

Front 51

Within the limbic system, the _____ is a structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage.

Back 51

amygdala

Front 52

Withing the limbic system, The _____ plays a vital role in learning and memory processes; specifically, it helps consolidate information to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex. It communicates with other portions of the limbic system through a long projection called the fornix.

Back 52

hippocampus

Front 53

loss of memory for any new information.

Back 53

anterograde amnesia

Front 54

memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury.

Back 54

retrograde amnesia

Front 55

Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

Back 55

lobes of the brain

Front 56

The outer surface of the brain

Back 56

cerebral cortex

Front 57

the cortex has numerous bumps and folds called:

Back 57

gyri and sulci

Front 58

The cerebrum is divided into two halves, called:

Back 58

cerebral hemispheres.

Front 59

The frontal lobe is comprised of two basic regions :

Back 59

the prefrontal lobes and the motor cortex.

Front 60

The _____ manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions. This region supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning.

Back 60

prefrontal cortex

Front 61

To regulate attention and alertness, the prefrontal cortex communicates with the _____ in the brainstem, telling an individual either to wake up or relax, depending on the situation.

Back 61

reticular formation

Front 62

The _____ is located on the precentral gyrus (just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes), and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles.

Back 62

primary motor cortex

Front 63

A third important part of the frontal lobe is _____, which is vitally important for speech production. It is usually found in only one hemisphere, the so-called “dominant” hemisphere; for most people— both right- and left-handed— this is the left hemisphere.

Back 63

Broca’s area

Front 64

The _____ is located on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus) and is involved in somatosensory information processing. This projection area is the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

Back 64

somatosensory cortex

Front 65

The_____ is associated with spatial processing and manipulation. This region makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in three-dimensional space, to do spatial manipulation of objects, and to apply spatial orientation

Back 65

central region of the parietal lobe

Front 66

The _____ lobes, at the very rear of the brain , contain the visual cortex.

Back 66

occipital

Front 67

The auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area are located in the _____ lobe.

Back 67

temporal

Front 68

The_____ is the primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, and other sound information.

Back 68

auditory cortex

Front 69

_____ is associated with language reception and comprehension.

Back 69

Wernicke’s area

Front 70

The ____ lobe also functions in memory processing, emotion, and language.

Back 70

temporal

Front 71

In most cases, one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body. In such cases, we say a cerebral hemisphere communicates ______. In other cases (for instance , hearing), cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body. In such cases, the hemispheres communicate _____.

Back 71

contralaterally, ipsilaterally

Front 72

The _____ is primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details . For instance, language, logic, and math skills are all located here. Again, language production (Broca’s area) and language comprehension (Wernicke’s area) are primarily driven by _____.

Back 72

dominant hemisphere (usually the left)

Front 73

The_____ is associated with intuition, creativity , music cognition, and spatial processing. It simultaneously processes the pieces of a stimulus and assembles them into a holistic image. It serves a less prominent role in language. It is more sensitive to the emotional tone of spoken language, and permits us to recognize others’ moods based on visual and auditory cues, which adds to communication.

Back 73

nondominant hemisphere (usually the right)

Front 74

_____ is a neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the peripheral nervous system, it is used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles. It is the neurotransmitter used by the parasympathetic nervous system and a small portion of the sympathetic nervous system (for innervating sweat glands). In the central nervous system, it has been linked to attention and arousal.

Back 74

Acetylcholine

Front 75

They are three closely related neurotransmitters known as catecholamines. Due to similarities in their molecular composition, these three transmitters are also classified as monoanimes, or biogenic amines.

Back 75

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine

Front 76

They are involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness . As the primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system, they promote the fight-or-flight response.

Back 76

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Front 77

_____ more commonly acts at a local level as a neurotransmitter, epinephrine is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systemically as a hormone. Low levels of _____ are associated with depression; high levels are associated with anxiety and mania.

Back 77

norepinephrine

Front 78

An important theory about the origin of schizophrenia is called ______. It argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain.

Back 78

the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia.

Front 79

_____ is associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia. These disruptions of dopamine transmission lead to resting tremors and jerky movements, as well as postural instability.

Back 79

Parkinson’s disease

Front 80

Along with the catecholamines , _____ is classified as a monoamine or biogenic amine neurotransmitter.

Back 80

serotonin

Front 81

This neurotransmitter is generally thought to play roles in regulating mood , eating, sleeping, and dreaming. Like norepinephrine, it is thought to play a role in depression and mania. An oversupply is thought to produce manic states; an undersupply is thought to produce depression.

Back 81

serotonin

Front 82

This neurotransmitter produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. It exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.

Back 82

γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Front 83

_____ are therefore relatively slow and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than neurotransmitters.

Back 83

Neuromodulators (Studies suggest that peptides are also involved in neurotransmission. The synaptic action of these neuromodulators (also called neuropeptides) involves a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than that of regular neurotransmitters.)

Front 84

The _____ , which are natural painkillers produced in the brain, are the most important peptides to know. They (and their relatives, enkephalins) have actions similar to morphine or other opioids in the body.

Back 84

endorphins

Front 85

the hypophyseal portal system directly connects:

Back 85

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Front 86

The_____ releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system.

Back 86

adrenal medulla

Front 87

The adrenal cortex produces many hormones called _____, including the stress hormone _____.

Back 87

corticosteroids, cortisol

Front 88

The _____ contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen.

Back 88

adrenal cortex

Front 89

The _____ are the sex glands of the body— ovaries in females, and testes in males.

Back 89

gonads

Front 90

_____ is genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience.

Back 90

Innate behavior

Front 91

_____ are not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment.

Back 91

Learned behaviors

Front 92

_____ is the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.

Back 92

Adaptive value

Front 93

_____ is defined as heredity, or the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior. _____ refers to the influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior.

Back 93

Nature, nurture

Front 94

Research that determines the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people uses one of three methods :

Back 94

family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies.

Front 95

_____ occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds,

Back 95

Neurulation

Front 96

Cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called the ____, and will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues, including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid.

Back 96

neural crest

Front 97

The remainder of the furrow closes to form the _____, which will ultimately form the central nervous system (CNS). This has an alar plate, which differentiates into sensory neurons, and a basal plate, which differentiates into motor neurons.

Back 97

neural tube

Front 98

A ____ is a behavior that occurs automatically in response to a given stimulus.

Back 98

reflex

Front 99

Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying.

Back 99

Moro reflex

Front 100

The _____ causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated,

Back 100

Babinski reflex

Front 101

_____ incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling, and walking.

Back 101

Gross motor skills

Front 102

_____ involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement. These abilities include tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving.

Back 102

Fine motor skills

Front 103

_____ use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain.

Back 103

Reflex arcs

Front 104

The PNS is divided into:

Back 104

the somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic) divisions.

Front 105

The autonomic system is divided into:

Back 105

the parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) and sympathetic (fight-or-flight) branches.

Front 106

the conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to electrical signals in the nervous system.

Back 106

transduction

Front 107

refers to the processing of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from our internal and external environment to make sense of its significance.

Back 107

Perception

Front 108

neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals.

Back 108

Sensory receptors

Front 109

collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system.

Back 109

Ganglia

Front 110

Sensory receptors that respond to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)

Back 110

Photoreceptors

Front 111

Sensory receptors that respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear structures (hearing, rotational and linear acceleration)

Back 111

Hair cells

Front 112

Sensory receptors that respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)

Back 112

Nociceptors

Front 113

Sensory receptors that respond to changes in temperature (somatosensation)

Back 113

Thermoreceptors

Front 114

Sensory receptors that respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)

Back 114

Osmoreceptors

Front 115

Sensory receptors that respond to volatile compounds (smell)

Back 115

Olfactory receptors

Front 116

Sensory receptors that respond to dissolved compounds (taste)

Back 116

Taste receptors

Front 117

the minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception.

Back 117

threshold

Front 118

the minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system.

Back 118

absolute threshold

Front 119

Thresholds can also be called:

Back 119

limina

Front 120

the perception of a stimulus below a given threshold .

Back 120

subliminal perception

Front 121

the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference.

Back 121

difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (jnd)

Front 122

Law which states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd and the magnitude of the original stimulus.

Back 122

Weber’s law

Front 123

the changes in our perception of the same stimuli depending on both internal (psychological) and external (environmental ) context.

Back 123

signal detection theory

Front 124

the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors.

Back 124

response bias

Front 125

Trials in which the signal is presented are called _____, whereas those in which the signal is not presented are called _____. After each trial, the subject is asked to indicate whether or not a signal was given.

Back 125

catch trials, noise trials

Front 126

thick structural layer known as the white of the eye. It does not cover the frontmost portion of the eye.

Back 126

sclera

Front 127

the frontmost portion of the eye:

Back 127

cornea

Front 128

The eye is supplied with nutrients by two sets of blood vessels: the _____ vessels, a complex intermingling of blood vessels between the sclera and the retina, and the _____ vessels.

Back 128

choroidal, retinal

Front 129

The innermost layer of the eye which contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process.

Back 129

retina

Front 130

When entering the eye, light passes first through the?

Back 130

cornea

Front 131

The front of the eye is divided into the_____, which lies in front of the iris, and the _____between the iris and the lens.

Back 131

anterior chamber, posterior chamber

Front 132

The iris, which is the colored part of the eye, is composed of two muscles: the _____, which opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation; and the _____, which constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation.

Back 132

dilator pupillae, constrictor pupillae

Front 133

The ____ is continuous with the choroid, as is the ciliary body, which produces the aqueous humor that bathes the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of Schlemm.

Back 133

iris

Front 134

The _____ lies right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of the incoming light.

Back 134

lens

Front 135

Contraction of the _____, a component of the ciliary body in the eye, is under parasympathetic control.

Back 135

ciliary muscle

Front 136

As the ciliary muscle of the eye contracts, it pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens, a phenomenon known as _____.

Back 136

accommodation

Front 137

Behind the lens of the eye lies a transparent gel that supports the retina.

Back 137

the vitreous

Front 138

The _____ is in the back of the eye and is like a screen consisting of neural elements and blood vessels. Its function is to convert incoming photons of light to electrical signals. It is actually considered part of the central nervous system and develops as an outgrowth of brain tissue.

Back 138

retina

Front 139

This theory states that the retina contains two kinds of photoreceptors: those specialized for light-and-dark detection, and those specialized for color detection.

Back 139

The duplexity or duplicity theory of vision

Front 140

_____ are used for color vision and to sense fine details.

Back 140

Cones

Front 141

rods are more functional and only allow sensation of light and dark because they all contain a single pigment called:

Back 141

rhodopsin

Front 142

the central section of the retina, called the _____, has a high concentration of cones; in fact, its centermost point, called the _____, contains only cones.

Back 142

macula, fovea

Front 143

Rods and cones in the eye connect with _____, which highlight gradients between adjacent rods or cones.

Back 143

bipolar cells

Front 144

Bipolar cells synapse with ____, which group together to form the optic nerve.

Back 144

ganglion cells

Front 145

_____ and _____ receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before the information is passed on to ganglion cells. They can thereby accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell. These cells are important for edge detection , as they increase our perception of contrasts.

Back 145

Amacrine, horizontal cells

Front 146

the physical anatomical connections between the eyes and the brain and the flow of visual information along these connections.

Back 146

Visual pathways

Front 147

As the signal travels through the optic nerves toward the brain, the first significant event occurs at the _____. Here, the fibers from the nasal half (closer to the nose) of each retina cross paths.

Back 147

optic chiasm

Front 148

From the optic chiasm, visual information goes to several different places in the brain : the _____ of the thalamus, through radiations in the temporal and parietal lobes to the _____ in the occipital lobe.

Back 148

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), visual cortex

Front 149

There are visual information inputs into the _____, which controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive eye movements.

Back 149

superior colliculus

Front 150

_____ is the ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape, and motion. Then, these features can be compared to our memories to determine what is being viewed.

Back 150

Parallel processing

Front 151

Parallel processing is not only a psychological model, but also has a correlate in neuroscience called _____.

Back 151

feature detection

Front 152

Shape is detected by _____, which have very high color spatial resolution; that is, they permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object. However, these cells can only work with stationary or slow-moving objects because they have very low temporal resolution.

Back 152

parvocellular cells

Front 153

Motion is detected by _____ because they have very high temporal resolution. However, these cells have low spatial resolution, so much of the rich detail of an object can no longer be seen once it is motion. These cells therefore provide a blurry but moving image of an object.

Back 153

magnocellular cells

Front 154

The ear is divided into three parts:

Back 154

the outer, middle, and inner ear

Front 155

The main function of the _____ is to channel sound waves into the external auditory canal, which directs the sound waves to the tympanic membrane (eardrum).

Back 155

pinna

Front 156

Louder sounds have greater _____, which corresponds to an increased amplitude of this vibration.

Back 156

intensity

Front 157

The _____ divides the outer ear from the middle ear.

Back 157

tympanic membrane

Front 158

The middle ear houses the three smallest bones in the body, called ossicles. The ossicles help transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. The _____ is affixed to the tympanic membrane; it acts on the _____, which acts on the _____.

Back 158

malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), stapes (stirrup)

Front 159

The baseplate of the stapes rests in the _____ of the cochlea, which is the entrance to the inner ear.

Back 159

oval window

Front 160

The middle ear is connected to the nasal cavity via the _____, which helps equalize pressure between the middle ear and the environment.

Back 160

Eustachian tube

Front 161

The inner ear sits within a bony labyrinth and contains:

Back 161

cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals

Front 162

The cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals are continuous with each other and form the _____, which is filled with a potassium -rich fluid called _____.

Back 162

membranous labyrinth, endolymph

Front 163

The membranous labyrinth is suspended within the bony labyrinth by a thin layer of fluid called _____.

Back 163

perilymph

Front 164

The _____ is a spiral-shaped organ divided into three parts called scalae.

Back 164

cochlea

Front 165

The middle scala houses the actual hearing apparatus, called _____, which rests on a thin, flexible membrane called the basilar membrane.

Back 165

the organ of Corti

Front 166

On top of the organ of Corti is a relatively immobile membrane called the _____.

Back 166

tectorial membrane

Front 167

The organ of Corti is composed of thousands of hair cells, which are bathed in _____.

Back 167

endolymph

Front 168

the _____, a membrane-covered hole in the cochlea, permits the perilymph to actually move within the cochlea.

Back 168

round window

Front 169

Like the rods and cones of the eye, the hair cells in the organ of Corti convert the physical stimulus into an electrical signal, which is carried to the central nervous system by the _____.

Back 169

auditory (vestibulocochlear) nerve

Front 170

The _____ refers to the portion of the bony labyrinth that contains the utricle and saccule, which are sensitive to linear acceleration, so are used as part of the balancing apparatus and to determine one’s orientation in three-dimensional space.

Back 170

vestibule

Front 171

The utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered with _____. As the body accelerates, these _____ will resist that motion. This bends and stimulates the underlying hair cells, which send a signal to the brain.

Back 171

otoliths

Front 172

While the utricle and saccule are sensitive to linear acceleration, the three _____ are sensitive to rotational acceleration . These are arranged perpendicularly to each other, and each ends in a swelling called an _____, where hair cells are located. When the head rotates, endolymph resists this motion, bending the underlying hair cells, which send a signal to the brain.

Back 172

semicircular canals, ampulla

Front 173

Most sound information passes through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brainstem, where it ascends to the _____ of the thalamus.

Back 173

medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)

Front 174

From the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN), it projects to the _____ in the temporal lobe for sound processing. Some information is also sent to the _____, which localizes the sound, and the _____, which is involved in the startle reflex and helps keep the eyes fixed on a point while the head is turned (vestibulo– ocular reflex).

Back 174

auditory cortex, superior olive, inferior colliculus

Front 175

The_____ is for light; the _____ is for music.

Back 175

lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)

Front 176

_____ are located in olfactory epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity. Chemical stimuli must bind to their respective receptors to cause a signal.

Back 176

Olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves)

Front 177

Olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves) are activated, sending signals to the _____. These signals are then relayed via the _____ to higher regions of the brain, including the limbic system.

Back 177

olfactory bulb, olfactory tract

Front 178

Somatosensation is usually described as having four modalities:

Back 178

pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature.

Front 179

The 5 types of receptors that receive tactile information:

Back 179

Pacinian corpuscles: respond to deep pressure and vibration, Meissner corpuscles: respond to light touch, Merkle discs: respond to deep pressure and texture, Ruffini endings: respond to stretch, and Free nerve endings: respond to pain and temperature

Front 180

Somatosensory transduction occurs in the receptors, which send the signal to the central nervous system where it eventually travels to the _____ in the parietal lobe.

Back 180

somatosensory cortex

Front 181

A _____ refers to the minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli.

Back 181

two-point threshold

Front 182

Temperature is judged relative to _____, or the normal temperature of the skin (between 86 and 97 ° F). Thus, an object feels “cold” because it is under this; an object feels “warm” because it is above this.

Back 182

physiological zero

Front 183

Pain perception is part of the somatosensory system and can result from signals sent from a variety of sensory receptors, most commonly _____.

Back 183

nociceptors

Front 184

Kinesthetic sense is also called _____, and refers to the ability to tell where one’s body is in space. hand. The receptors for this are found mostly in muscle and joints, and play critical roles in hand– eye coordination, balance, and mobility.

Back 184

proprioception

Front 185

Modern theories of object recognition assume at least two major types of psychological processing:

Back 185

bottom-up processing and top-down processing.

Front 186

_____ processing refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection. Essentially, the brain takes the individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is.

Back 186

Bottom-up (data-driven)

Front 187

_____ processing is driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations. In other words, this type of processing allows us to quickly recognize objects without needing to analyze their specific parts.

Back 187

Top-down (conceptually driven)

Front 188

_____ refers to the ability to use these bottom-up and top-down processes, in tandem with all of the other sensory clues about an object, to create a complete picture or idea.

Back 188

Perceptual organization

Front 189

_____ generally are ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete.

Back 189

Gestalt principles

Front 190

The _____ says that elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit.

Back 190

law of proximity

Front 191

The _____ says that objects that are similar tend to be grouped together.

Back 191

law of similarity

Front 192

The _____ says that elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together.

Back 192

law of good continuation

Front 193

The _____ says that when a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a complete figure and can also refers to the fact that certain figures tend to be perceived as more complete than they really are.

Back 193

law of closure

Front 194

Taken altogether, the Gestalt principles are governed by the _____, which says that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.

Back 194

law of prägnanz

Front 195

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response called _____. _____ is defined as the recovery of a response to a stimulus after the first concept has occurred.

Back 195

habituation, Dishabituation

Front 196

_____ is the creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response.

Back 196

Associative learning

Front 197

_____ is a type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between two unrelated stimuli.

Back 197

Classical conditioning

Front 198

Any stimulus that brings about an innate or reflexive response is called an _____, and the innate or reflexive response is called an _____.

Back 198

unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response

Front 199

Many stimuli do not produce a reflexive response and are known as _____.

Back 199

neutral stimuli

Front 200

Classical conditioning, then, is the process of taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which is also referred to as _____.

Back 200

acquisition

Front 201

Whereas classical conditioning is concerned with instincts and biological responses, _____ links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors.

Back 201

operant conditioning

Front 202

_____ is the process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior.

Back 202

Reinforcement

Front 203

Reinforcers are divided into two categories. _____ increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior. _____ act similarly in that they increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant.

Back 203

Positive reinforcers, Negative reinforcers

Front 204

Negative reinforcers can be subdivided into two categories, which differ in the timing of the unpleasant stimulus. Taking aspirin is an example of _____: the role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists, like a headache. _____, on the other hand, is meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen.

Back 204

escape learning, avoidance learning

Front 205

In contrast to reinforcement, _____ uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior.

Back 205

punishment

Front 206

_____ adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior while _____ is the reduction of a behavior when a stimulus is removed .

Back 206

Positive punishment, Negative punishment

Front 207

_____ reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior. _____ is a fixed-ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed.

Back 207

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules, Continuous reinforcement

Front 208

_____ reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant.

Back 208

Variable-ratio (VR) schedules

Front 209

_____ reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed.

Back 209

Fixed-interval (FI) schedules

Front 210

_____ reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time.

Back 210

Variable-interval (VI) schedules

Front 211

Many organisms undergo _____; that is, learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced.

Back 211

latent learning

Front 212

These neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action.

Back 212

Mirror neurons

Front 213

_____ refers to the process of putting new information into memory.

Back 213

Encoding

Front 214

There are a few different ways that we encode the meaning of information that requires controlled processing . We can visualize it (_____), store the way it sounds (_____), or put it into a meaningful context (_____).

Back 214

visual encoding, acoustic encoding, semantic encoding

Front 215

We tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives, a phenomenon called the _____.

Back 215

self-reference effect

Front 216

_____ is the repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory (to prevent forgetting) or to store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory.

Back 216

maintenance rehearsal

Front 217

The _____ involves associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized.

Back 217

method of loci

Front 218

the _____ associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers.

Back 218

peg-word system

Front 219

_____ ( sometimes referred to as clustering) is a memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning.

Back 219

chunking

Front 220

The first and most fleeting kind of memory storage is _____, which consists of both iconic ( visual ) and echoic (auditory) memory. This type of memory lasts only a very short time (generally under one second), but within that time our eyes and ears take in an incredibly detailed representation of our surroundings that we can recall with amazing precision.

Back 220

sensory memory

Front 221

Similar to sensory memory, _____ fades quickly, but over the course of approximately 30 seconds without rehearsal. In addition to having a limited duration, short-term memories are also limited in capacity to approximately seven items, usually stated as the 7 ± 2 rule.

Back 221

short-term memory

Front 222

_____ is closely related to short-term memory. It enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information. To do this, one must integrate short-term memory, attention, and executive function. This is the form of memory that allows us to do simple math in our heads.

Back 222

Working memory

Front 223

Unlike maintenance rehearsal, which is simply a way of keeping the information at the forefront of consciousness, _____ is the association of the information to knowledge already stored in long-term memory.

Back 223

elaborative rehearsal

Front 224

There are two types of long-term memory. _____ consists of our skills and conditioned responses. _____ consists of those memories that require conscious recall.

Back 224

Implicit (nondeclarative or procedural) memory, Explicit (declarative) memory

Front 225

Explicit memory can be further divided into _____ and _____.

Back 225

semantic memory (the facts that we know) and episodic memory (our experiences)

Front 226

_____ is the name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained.

Back 226

Retrieval

Front 227

_____, the process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned, is far easier than recall.

Back 227

Recognition

Front 228

Through additional research, Ebbinghaus discovered that the longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on. Ebbinghaus dubbed this phenomenon the _____.

Back 228

spacing effect

Front 229

Psychologists think of memory not as simply a stockpile of unrelated facts, but rather as a network of interconnected ideas called a _____.

Back 229

semantic network

Front 230

When one node of our semantic network is activated, such as seeing the word red on a sign, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated, a process known as _____.

Back 230

spreading activation

Front 231

Spreading activation is at the heart of a retrieval cue known as _____, in which recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory.

Back 231

priming

Front 232

The concept that the specific location where information is learned can help in the recollection of a memory.

Back 232

context effect

Front 233

A person’s mental state can also affect recall. This retrieval cue is called _____.

Back 233

state-dependent memory

Front 234

There are several disorders that can lead to decline in memory. The most common is _____, which is a degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus. It tends to proceed in a retrograde fashion, with loss of recent memories before distant memories.

Back 234

Alzheimer’s disease

Front 235

_____ is another form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. The disorder is marked by both retrograde amnesia (the loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new memories ). Another common symptom is confabulation, or the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories , typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories.

Back 235

Korsakoff’s syndrome

Front 236

_____ is the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds , though usually only one of the three. It is usually caused by physical damage to the brain, such as that caused by a stroke or a neurological disorder such as multiple sclerosis.

Back 236

Agnosia

Front 237

A common reason for memory loss is _____, a retrieval error caused by the existence of other (usually similar) information. It can be classified by its direction. When we experience _____, old information is interfering with new learning. _____ is when new information causes forgetting of old information.

Back 237

interference, proactive interference, Retroactive interference

Front 238

_____ (remembering to perform a task at some point in the future) remains mostly intact when it is event-based —that is, primed by a trigger event, such as remembering to buy milk when walking past the grocery store. On the other hand, when it is time-based, such as remembering to take a medication every day at 7: 00 a.m., does tend to decline with age.

Back 238

Prospective memory

Front 239

_____ is another memory construction error involving confusion between semantic and episodic memory : a person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context under which those details were gained.

Back 239

Source amnesia

Front 240

As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density. This strengthening is known as _____, and is believed to be the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory.

Back 240

long-term potentiation

Front 241

The study of _____ looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world.

Back 241

cognition

Front 242

The_____ has four key components, or pillars: 1)Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli 2) Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making 3) Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification) 4) Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Back 242

information processing model

Front 243

_____ is the development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan.

Back 243

Cognitive development

Front 244

He was one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology. He insisted that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think, and thus divided the lifespan into four stages of cognitive development.

Back 244

Jean Piaget

Front 245

The four stages of cognitive development:

Back 245

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Front 246

As infants use their reflexes to experience the world around them, they develop organized patterns of behavior and thought called _____.

Back 246

schema

Front 247

Piaget theorized that new information is processed via _____.

Back 247

adaptation

Front 248

Adaptation (the processing of new information) to information comes about by two complementary processes: _____ and _____. The former is the process of classifying new information into existing schemata. If the new information does not fit neatly into existing schemata, then the latter occurs. The latter is the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.

Back 248

assimilation and accommodation

Front 249

The first of Piaget's developmental stages is the _____, starting at birth and lasting until about two years of age. In this stage, a child learns to manipulate his or her environment in order to meet physical needs.

Back 249

sensorimotor stage

Front 250

The key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage is the development of _____, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view.

Back 250

object permanence

Front 251

Object permanence marks the beginning of _____, in which the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.

Back 251

representational thought

Front 252

Piaget's second developmental stage is the _____, which lasts from about two to seven years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking , egocentrism, and centration.

Back 252

preoperational stage

Front 253

_____ refers to the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination.

Back 253

Symbolic thinking

Front 254

_____ refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel.

Back 254

Egocentrism

Front 255

_____ is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon , or inability to understand the concept of conservation.

Back 255

Centration

Front 256

The third of Piaget's developmental stages is the _____, which lasts from about 7 to 11 years of age. In this stage, children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others. Additionally, they are able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. These children have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly.

Back 256

concrete operational stage

Front 257

Piaget's 4th and final developmental stage is the _____, which starts around 11 years of age , and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas. Generally coinciding with adolescence, this stage is marked by the ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem-solve.Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 2707-2708). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 257

formal operational stage

Front 258

He proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language. As a child develops, her skills and abilities are still in formative stages. With help from adults or other children, those skills can develop further.

Back 258

Lev Vygotsky

Front 259

There are two subtypes of intelligence: _____ and _____. The former consists of problem-solving skills, while the latter is more related to use of learned skills and knowledge. Fluid intelligence was shown to peak in early adulthood , while crystallized intelligence peaked in middle adulthood.Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 2732-2734). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 259

Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence

Front 260

Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 2720-2723). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 260

Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Location 2720). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Front 261

_____ starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. An example of this is a logic puzzle. In these puzzles, one has to synthesize a list of logical rules to come up with the single possible solution to the problem.

Back 261

Deductive (top-down) reasoning

Front 262

_____ seeks to create a theory via generalizations. This type of reasoning starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them.

Back 262

Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning

Front 263

_____ are simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called rules of thumb.

Back 263

Heuristics

Front 264

The _____ is used when we try to decide how likely something is. When we use this heuristic, we make our decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined .

Back 264

availability heuristic

Front 265

The _____ involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.

Back 265

representativeness heuristic

Front 266

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information is called the _____.

Back 266

base rate fallacy

Front 267

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is one of the most all-encompassing definitions, with seven defined types of intelligence:

Back 267

linguistic, logical– mathematical, musical, visual–spatial, bodily– kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal .

Front 268

_____ is one’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world.

Back 268

Consciousness

Front 269

In an EEG,_____ waves have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration, and they occur when neurons are randomly firing . _____ waves occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than the former waves. The latter waves are also more synchronized than former waves.

Back 269

Beta, Alpha

Front 270

As soon as you doze off, you enter _____ sleep, which is detected on the EEG by the appearance of _____ waves.

Back 270

Stage 1, theta

Front 271

As you fall more deeply asleep, you enter _____ sleep. The EEG shows _____ waves along with _____ and _____.

Back 271

Stage 2, theta, sleep spindles and K complexes

Front 272

As you fall even more deeply asleep, you enter Stages _____, also known as _____. EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen. These low-frequency, high-voltage sleep waves are called _____ waves. During these stages, it becomes especially difficult to rouse someone from sleep . SWS has been associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation, as well as increased growth hormone release.

Back 272

3 and 4, slow-wave sleep (SWS), delta

Front 273

In _____ sleep, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed. It is also called paradoxical sleep because one’s heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness , but the individual is still asleep. This is the stage in which dreaming is most likely to occur and is also associated with memory consolidation.

Back 273

rapid eye movement (REM)

Front 274

A _____ refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages.

Back 274

sleep cycle

Front 275

_____, a steroid hormone produced in the _____, is also related to the sleep– wake cycle. Its levels slowly increase during early morning because increasing light causes the release of _____ from the hypothalamus. CRF causes release of _____ from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release.

Back 275

Cortisol, adrenal cortex, corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Front 276

_____ refer to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep , or avoid sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea. _____ are abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, and include night terrors and sleepwalking. Most sleep disorders occur during NREM sleep.

Back 276

Dyssomnias, Parasomnias

Front 277

The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique, and include _____, a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger;_____, a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake; and hallucinations, which are hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening.

Back 277

cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic and hypnopompic

Front 278

_____, which are most common in children, are periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep.

Back 278

Night terrors

Front 279

_____, usually occurs during SWS. Sufferers may eat , talk, have sexual intercourse , or even drive great distances while sleeping with absolutely no recollection of the event.

Back 279

Sleepwalking, or somnambulism

Front 280

_____ can be defined as a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state.

Back 280

Hypnosis

Front 281

_____ reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety.

Back 281

Depressants

Front 282

_____, caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B 1 ) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills.

Back 282

Wernicke– Korsakoff Syndrome

Front 283

_____ were historically used as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications, but have mostly been replaced by benzodiazepines, which are less prone to overdose. These include amobarbital and phenobarbital; benzodiazepines include alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam. These drugs also increase GABA activity, causing a sense of relaxation. However, both of these drugs can be highly addictive.

Back 283

Barbiturates

Front 284

_____ cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system. Each drug increases the frequency of action potentials, but does so by different mechanisms.

Back 284

Stimulants

Front 285

_____ cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake. This increases arousal and causes a reduction in appetite and decreased need for sleep. Physiological effects include an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Psychological effects include euphoria, hypervigilance (being “on edge”), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia.

Back 285

Amphetamines

Front 286

_____ decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, although by a different mechanism. The effects of cocaine intoxication and withdrawal are therefore similar to amphetamines. This drug also has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, and is therefore sometimes used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas, such as the nose and throat. These vasoconstrictive properties can also lead to heart attacks and strokes when used recreationally. _____ is a form of cocaine that can be smoked. With quick and potent effects, this drug is highly addictive.

Back 286

Cocaine, Crack

Front 287

Naturally occurring forms of this drug include morphine and codeine. Semisynthetic derivatives, called _____ include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin. These compounds bind to specific receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system, causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria.

Back 287

Opiates, opioids

Front 288

_____, or diacetylmorphine, was originally created as a substitute for morphine. However, once injected, the body rapidly metabolizes it to morphine. Usually smoked or injected, it was once the most widely abused opioid; however, this designation has shifted to prescription opioids like oxycodone and hydrocodone.

Back 288

Heroin

Front 289

_____ include drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms. The exact mechanism of most of these drugs is unknown, but is thought to be a complex interaction between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin. These drugs typically cause distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection. Physiologic effects include increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, and increased body temperature.Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 3117-3119). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 289

Hallucinogens

Front 290

Drug addiction is highly related to the _____, one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain. This pathway includes the_____, the _____, and the connection between them called the _____. This pathway is normally involved in motivation and emotional response, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use. This addiction pathway is activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence.

Back 290

mesolimbic reward pathway, nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle (MFB).

Front 291

_____ is focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli.

Back 291

Selective attention

Front 292

You are at a party, talking with a friend. However, your ears perk up when you hear your name spoken halfway across the room. Even though you were engaged in conversation and presumably paying attention, you were able to perceive your name being mentioned. This is sometimes called the _____ and is evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention.

Back 292

cocktail party phenomenon

Front 293

_____ is the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Most new or complex tasks require undivided attention, and utilize _____. In contrast, familiar or routine actions can be performed with _____, which permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention.

Back 293

Divided attention, controlled (effortful) processing, automatic processing

Front 294

_____ refers to the structure of words. Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes, each of which connotes a particular meaning.

Back 294

Morphology

Front 295

_____ refers to the association of meaning with a word.

Back 295

Semantics

Front 296

_____ refers to how words are put together to form sentences.

Back 296

Syntax

Front 297

_____ refers to the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. In other words, the manner in which we speak may differ depending on the audience and our relationship to that audience.

Back 297

pragmatics

Front 298

_____ is the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.

Back 298

prosody

Front 299

The _____, largely credited to linguist Noam Chomsky, advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language. Chomsky is known for his study of _____. He focused on syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that retain the same meaning. Chomsky noted that children learn to make such transformations effortlessly at an early age. He therefore concluded that this ability must be innate. In this theory, this innate ability is called the _____, a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules.

Back 299

nativist (biological) theory, transformational grammar, language acquisition device (LAD)

Front 300

Nativists believe in a _____ for language acquisition between two years and puberty. If no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is largely ineffective.

Back 300

critical period

Front 301

A _____ is a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability. Most psychologists consider this period for language development to be before the onset of puberty.

Back 301

sensitive period

Front 302

The _____, proposed by B. F. Skinner, explained language acquisition by operant conditioning. Very young babies are capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages, but by six months of age, show a strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents. Skinner explained language acquisition by reinforcement. That is, parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents. Thus, over time, the infant perceives that certain sounds have little value and are not reinforced, while other sounds have value and are reliably reinforced by parents and caregivers.

Back 302

learning (behaviorist) theory

Front 303

Psycholinguistics has long focused on the relationship between language and thinking. Linguist Benjamin Whorf proposed the _____, also called the _____, which suggests that our perception of reality— the way we think about the world— is determined by the content of language.

Back 303

Whorfian hypothesis, linguistic relativity hypothesis

Front 304

_____, located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex.

Back 304

Broca’s area

Front 305

_____, located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension.

Back 305

Wernicke’s area

Front 306

Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are connected by the _____, a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production.

Back 306

arcuate fasciculus

Front 307

_____ is a deficit of language production or comprehension.

Back 307

Aphasia

Front 308

When damage occurs to Broca’s area, speech comprehension is intact but the patient will have a reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language. This is known as _____.

Back 308

Broca’s (expressive) aphasia

Front 309

When Wernicke’s area is damaged, motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. This is known as _____. Because speech comprehension is lost, these patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning. Patients

Back 309

Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia

Front 310

If the arcuate fasciculus is affected, the resulting aphasia is known as _____. Because Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are unaffected, speech production and comprehension are intact. However, the patient is unable to repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost.

Back 310

conduction aphasia

Front 311

Additionally, the _____ postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance. This law states that performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level.

Back 311

Yerkes–Dodson law

Front 312

Abraham Maslow observed that certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation and established what is referred to as _____.

Back 312

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Front 313

The first four levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs pyramid correspond to physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging, and self-esteem. The highest level of the pyramid corresponds to _____, or the need to realize one’s fullest potential .

Back 313

self-actualization

Front 314

Another need-based motivational theory is the _____. This theory emphasizes the role of three universal needs: _____, the need to be in control of one’s actions and ideas; _____ , the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks; and _____, the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships . Theorists explain that these three needs must be met in order to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others.

Back 314

self-determination theory (SDT), autonomy, competence, relatedness

Front 315

_____ explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments.

Back 315

Incentive theory

Front 316

_____ states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which she values succeeding at the goal.

Back 316

Expectancy– value theory

Front 317

This theory explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology. The problem with this reaction is that it will last longer than the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms that are exactly opposite the effects of alcohol: sensations of anxiety, jitteriness, and irritability. The withdrawal created by this mechanism can create a physical dependence on the drug.

Back 317

opponent-process theory

Front 318

There are three elements of an emotion:

Back 318

the physiological response, the behavioral response, and the cognitive response.

Front 319

According to this theory, a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled. James believed that when peripheral organs receive information and respond, that response is then labeled as an emotion by the brain.

Back 319

James– Lange theory of emotion

Front 320

This theory hypothesized that physiological arousal and feeling an emotion occur at the same time, not in sequence. Thus, severing the feedback should not alter the emotion experienced. In this theory, a person will respond with action after experiencing the emotion both mentally and physically.

Back 320

Cannon– Bard theory of emotion

Front 321

This theory of emotion states that the cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioral component of emotion , or action.

Back 321

the Cannon– Bard theory

Front 322

This theory of emotion, also termed the cognitive arousal theory or the two-factor theory. It states that both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. What is unique to this theory is this aspect of cognitive appraisal: to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal.

Back 322

the Schachter– Singer theory

Front 323

Experiencing emotion is a complex process involving many parts of the brain. The most notable of these circuits is the _____, a complex set of structures that reside below the cerebrum on either side of the thalamus.

Back 323

limbic system

Front 324

The limbic system is made up of:

Back 324

the amygdala, thalamus , hypothalamus, hippocampus and fornix, septal nuclei, and parts of the cerebral cortex;

Front 325

The _____ is a small round structure that signals the cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions. The amygdala processes the environment, detects external cues, and learns from the person’s surroundings in order to produce emotion. This region associated with fear and also plays a role in human emotion through interpretation of facial expressions. Controls the implicit memory system.

Back 325

amygdala

Front 326

The _____ functions as a preliminary sensory processing station and routes information to the cortex and other appropriate areas of the brain.

Back 326

thalamus

Front 327

The _____ synthesizes and releases a variety of neurotransmitters. It serves many homeostatic functions, and is involved in modulating emotion.

Back 327

hypothalamus

Front 328

The _____, within the temporal lobe, is primarily involved in creating long -term memories. Along with the functions of the amygdala and hypothalamus, the storage and retrieval of emotional memories is key in producing an emotional response. It also aids in creating context for stimuli to lead to an emotional experience. Controls the explicit memory system.

Back 328

hippocampus

Front 329

The _____ is the anterior portion of the frontal lobes and is associated with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions. It also receives arousal input from the brainstem, coordinating arousal and cognitive states. It has been demonstrated that the left portion is associated with positive emotions and the right portion with negative emotions.

Back 329

prefrontal cortex

Front 330

The _____ is associated with attention and cognition, while the _____ connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion. Specifically , the _____ is thought to play a substantial role in decision-making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala.

Back 330

dorsal prefrontal cortex, ventral prefrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Front 331

_____ is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.

Back 331

Cognitive appraisal

Front 332

Cognitive appraisal consists of two stages:

Back 332

Primary (Stage 1) and secondary (Stage 2) appraisal

Front 333

_____, is the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat. This appraisal can be identified as irrelevant, benign– positive, or stressful. If it reveals a threat, stage 2 appraisal begins.

Back 333

Stage 1, or primary appraisal

Front 334

_____ is directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. This appraisal involves the evaluation of three things: _____, or damage caused by the event; _____, or the potential for future damage caused by the event; and ______, or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event. Individuals who perceive themselves as having the ability to cope with the event experience less stress than those who don’t. In

Back 334

Secondary appraisal, harm, threat, and challenge

Front 335

Stress level can be measured in “life change units” in a system called the _____.

Back 335

social readjustment rating scale

Front 336

The "fight or glight" sequence of physiological responses is called the _____ and consists of three distinct stages:

Back 336

general adaptation syndrome, alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Front 337

The first stage of general adaptation syndrome is _____. The initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Shortly thereafter, the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This hormone stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which maintains the steady supply of blood sugar needed to respond to stressful events. The hypothalamus also activates the adrenal medulla, which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine to activate the sympathetic nervous system.

Back 337

Alarm

Front 338

The second stage of general adaptation syndrome is _____, in which the continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor.

Back 338

Resistance

Front 339

The third and final stage of general adaptation syndrome is _____. In this stage a person will experience difficulty when the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity. At this point, individuals become more susceptible to illnesses and medical conditions (such as ulcers and high blood pressure), organ systems can begin to deteriorate (including heart disease), and in extreme cases, death can result.

Back 339

exhaustion

Front 340

A self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities.

Back 340

self-schema

Front 341

The individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong.

Back 341

Identity

Front 342

This describes a person’s appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity.

Back 342

Gender identity

Front 343

_____ is defined as the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine, while those who achieve low scores on both scales are referred to as _____.

Back 343

Androgyny, undifferentiated

Front 344

_____ refers to one’s ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language.

Back 344

Ethnic identity

Front 345

It is believed that our identities are organized according to a_____, such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.

Back 345

hierarchy of salience

Front 346

_____ maintains that each of us has three selves. Our self-concept makes up our _____, the way we see ourselves as we currently are. Our _____ is the person we would like to be, and our _____ is our representation of the way others think we should be. Generally , the closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be.

Back 346

Self-discrepancy theory, actual self, ideal self, ought self

Front 347

_____ is our belief in our ability to succeed.

Back 347

self-efficacy

Front 348

_____ refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with an internal one view themselves of controlling their own fate, whereas those with an external one feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences.

Back 348

Locus of control

Front 349

_____ occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. In response to the anxiety, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as a neurosis.

Back 349

Fixation

Front 350

The stages of psychosocial development:

Back 350

1: Oral (0-1) 2: Anal (1-3) 3: phallic / oedipal (3-5) 4: latency (5-12) 5: genital (12+)

Front 351

Erik Erikson’s stages of personality development:

Back 351

trust vs. mistrust ( 0 to 1 year), autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3 years), initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years), industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years), identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20 years), intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40 years), generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years), integrity vs. despair (65+)

Front 352

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself or if the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout his life.

Back 352

trust vs. mistrust ( 0 to 1 year).

Front 353

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether the child is feels able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint or feels a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control.

Back 353

autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3 years).

Front 354

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether the child feels a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment; or if the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself, or may overcompensate by showing off.

Back 354

initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years).

Front 355

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires; or feels a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem.

Back 355

industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years)

Front 356

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether a person feels he has the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties, or he develops confusion about one’s identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.

Back 356

identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20 years)

Front 357

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether they have the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals; or if there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one’s ideals.Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 4459-4461). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 357

intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40 years)

Front 358

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether an individual feels he is capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society; or he acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others.Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 4463-4464). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 358

generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years)

Front 359

During Erikson's Stages of personality development, this conflict determines whether we will see wisdom with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one’s life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death; or he feels feelings of bitterness about one’s life , a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one’s own impending death.

Back 359

integrity vs. despair (65+)

Front 360

His theory of personality development focuses not on resolving conflicts or urges, but rather on the development of moral thinking. As our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex and nuanced ways, and this directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong.

Back 360

Lawrence Kohlberg

Front 361

What are the phases and stages of Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory?

Back 361

Preconventional morality (obedience, self-interest), conventional morality (conformity, law and order), postconventional morality (social contract, universal human ethics)

Front 362

In Kohlberg's first phase of moral reasoning called _____, stage one (_____) is concerned with avoiding punishment, while stage two (_____) is about gaining rewards. Stage two is often called the _____ because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing.

Back 362

Preconventional moralilty: obedience, self-interest (instrumental relativist stage)

Front 363

In Kohlberg's second phase of moral reasoning called _____, Stage three (_____) places emphasis on the “good boy, nice girl” orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others. Stage four (_____) maintains the social order in the highest regard.

Back 363

Conventional morality: conformity, law and order

Front 364

In Kohlberg's second phase of moral reasoning called _____, Stage five (_____) views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights. Stage six (_____) reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles.Kaplan (2014-09-09). Kaplan MCAT Behavioral Sciences Review: Created for MCAT 2015 (Kaplan Test Prep) (Kindle Locations 4505-4508). Kaplan Publishing. Kindle Edition.

Back 364

Postconvetional morality: social contract, universal human ethics

Front 365

His work was focused on understanding cognitive development. For him, the engine driving cognitive development was the child’s internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, language, and so on. As the child internalized these various interpersonal and cultural rules, her cognitive activity developed accordingly.

Back 365

Lev Vygotsky

Front 366

Vygotsky's definition of those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Gaining these skills successfully requires the help of a more knowledgeable other, typically an adult.

Back 366

zone of proximal development

Front 367

The ability to sense how another’s mind works— for example, understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it— is referred to as _____.

Back 367

theory of mind

Front 368

_____ describes the set of thoughts, feelings , traits and behaviors which are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations.

Back 368

Personality

Front 369

We can categorize theories of personality into four areas:

Back 369

psychoanalytic (psychodynamic), humanistic (phenomenological), type and trait, and behaviorist.

Front 370

_____ theories of personality contain some of the most widely varying perspectives on behavior, but they all have in common the assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality. The most noteworthy supporter of the psychoanalytic theory is Freud.

Back 370

psychoanalytic or psychodynamic

Front 371

The _____ consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. It functions according to the pleasure principle, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension. The _____ is the id’s response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later. Mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills this need for satisfaction is termed _____.

Back 371

id, primary process, wish fulfillment

Front 372

The _____ operates according to the _____, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the _____. The aim of this principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.

Back 372

ego, reality principle, secondary process

Front 373

The _____ is also responsible for moderating the desires of the superego. Whereas the id’s desires are basic needs, those of the superego are refined and focused on the ideal self.

Back 373

ego

Front 374

The _____ is the personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. It can be divided into two subsystems, both of which are a reflection of the morals taught to a child by his caregivers. The _____ is a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished, and the _____ consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.

Back 374

superego, conscience, ego-ideal

Front 375

Freud also stated that our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into three main categories: thoughts to which we have _____ access , thoughts that we aren’t currently aware of (_____), and thoughts that have been repressed (_____).

Back 375

conscious, preconscious, unconscious

Front 376

To Freud, an _____ is an innate psychological representation of a biological need. They fall into two types: ____ and _____.

Back 376

instinct, life and death

Front 377

The ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego is through _____. They have two common characteristics: first, they _____; second, they _____.

Back 377

defense mechanisms, destort reality, operate unconsciously

Front 378

There are eight main defense mechanisms:

Back 378

repression, suppression, regression, reaction formation , projection, rationalization, displacement, and sublimation.

Front 379

_____ is the ego’s way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, and underlies many of the other defense mechanisms, the aim of which is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way back from the unconscious.

Back 379

Repression

Front 380

While repression is mostly an unconscious forgetting, this defense mechanism is a more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting.

Back 380

suppression

Front 381

______ is a defense mechanism resulting in reversion to an earlier developmental state.

Back 381

Regression

Front 382

When individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites, they are taking advantage of this defense mechanism.

Back 382

reaction formation

Front 383

_____ is the defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others.

Back 383

Projection

Front 384

_____ test relies on the assumption that the client projects his unconscious feelings onto the shape.

Back 384

Rorschach inkblot

Front 385

the _____ Test consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. The story, presumably, will elucidate the client’s own unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Back 385

Thematic Apperception

Front 386

_____ is a defense mechanism resulting in the justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society.

Back 386

Rationalization

Front 387

_____ is a defense mechanism that describes the transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another.

Back 387

Displacement

Front 388

_____ is a defense mechanism resulting in the transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors.

Back 388

sublimation

Front 389

Carl Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind, and he divided the unconscious into two parts: the _____ and the _____.

Back 389

personal unconscious, collective unconscious

Front 390

_____ are underlying forms or concepts which give rise to archetypal images, which may differ somewhat between cultures.

Back 390

Archetypes

Front 391

The _____ is a Jungian archetype which is likened to a mask that we wear in public, and is the part of our personality that we present to the world. Jung describedthis as adaptive to our social interactions, emphasizing those qualities that improve our social standing and suppressing our other, less desirable qualities.

Back 391

persona

Front 392

The Jungian archetype of _____ describe sex-inappropriate qualities— in other words, feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females.

Back 392

anima (feminine) and the animus (masculine)

Front 393

The _____ Jungian archetype is responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts , feelings , and actions in our consciousness.

Back 393

shadow

Front 394

The _____, to Jung , was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind. It strives for unity.

Back 394

self

Front 395

Jung saw the self as a _____: the promoter of unity, balance, and harmony between the conscious mind, personal unconscious, and

Back 395

mandala

Front 396

Jung described three dichotomies of personality:

Back 396

Extraversion vs. introversion, Sensing vs. intuiting, Thinking vs. feeling (judging vs percieving was added by Myers-Briggs)

Front 397

Alfred Adler was the originator of the concept of the _____: an individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially.

Back 397

inferiority complex

Front 398

Adler's theory of the _____ is the force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality. _____ represents the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority.

Back 398

creative self, Style of life

Front 399

_____ is the notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences. According to Adler, human goals are based on the subjective or fictional estimate of life’s values rather than objective data from the past.

Back 399

fictional finalism

Front 400

_____ major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts and _____ principal axiom is that a person’s conduct is governed by inborn archetypes, _____ assumes that people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.

Back 400

Freud’s, Jung’s, Adler

Front 401

Horney postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten _____.

Back 401

neurotic needs

Front 402

Horney’s primary concept is based on the premise that a child’s early perception of the self is important and stems from a child’s relationship with her parents. Inadequate parenting can cause vulnerability and helplessness, which Horney termed _____, while neglect and rejection cause anger known as _____.

Back 402

basic anxiety, basic hostility

Front 403

To overcome basic anxiety or basic hostility and attain a degree of security, the child uses three strategies in her relationships with others:

Back 403

moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security; moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand; and moving away, or withdrawing, from people.

Front 404

In direct contrast to the psychoanalysts, who focus on “sick” individuals and their troubling urges, _____ focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach, describing those ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization.

Back 404

humanistic or phenomenological theorists

Front 405

Kurt Lewin’s _____ theory put very little stock in constraints on personalities such as fixed traits, habits, or structures such as the id, ego , and superego.

Back 405

force field

Front 406

If the focus of humanistic psychology is exploring how an individual reaches self-realization, then these forces could be divided into two large groups:

Back 406

those assisting in our attainment of goals, and those blocking the path to them.

Front 407

According to Maslow, self-actualized people are more likely than people who are not self-actualized to have what he called _____: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life which have important and lasting effects on the individual.

Back 407

peak experiences

Front 408

_____ used himself as a model to theorize about human nature, and set aside the traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement in his descriptions of personal construct psychology.

Back 408

George Kelly

Front 409

A person who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in her life. The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do, based on her knowledge, perception, and relationships with these other people.

Back 409

personal construct psychology

Front 410

Carl Rogers is most known for his psychotherapy technique known as _____.

Back 410

client-centered, person-centered, or nondirective therapy

Front 411

Carl Rogers pioneered the concept of _____, a therapeutic technique by which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.

Back 411

unconditional positive regard

Front 412

_____ theorists attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types, while _____ theorists prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors.

Back 412

Type, trait

Front 413

William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body type called _____. Sheldon presumed that all short, stocky people were jolly, all tall people were high-strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well-adjusted.

Back 413

somatotypes

Front 414

One well-known type theory divides personalities into types. Individuals with _____ personalities are characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive, while someone described as _____ is generally laid-back and relaxed.

Back 414

Type A, Type B

Front 415

Hans and Sybil Eysenck described three traits in the PEN model. _____ is a measure of nonconformity or social deviance. _____ is a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation. Finally, _____ is a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations.

Back 415

Psychoticism, Extraversion, neuroticism

Front 416

The Big Five Traits of Personality:

Back 416

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Front 417

Gordon Allport, primarily a trait theorist, listed three basic types of traits or dispositions:

Back 417

cardinal, central, and secondary.

Front 418

_____ traits are traits around which a person organizes her life.

Back 418

Cardinal

Front 419

_____ traits represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma .

Back 419

Central

Front 420

_____ traits are other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one’s personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations.

Back 420

Secondary

Front 421

A major part of Gordon Allport’s theory is the concept of _____, in which a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior.

Back 421

functional autonomy

Front 422

David McClelland identified a personality trait that is referred to as the _____. People who are rated high in this tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments. These individuals avoid high risks (to avoid failing) and low risks (because easy tasks will not generate a sense of achievement). Additionally , they set realistic goals, and stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely.

Back 422

need for achievement (N-Ach)

Front 423

_____, for example, are often used in inpatient therapeutic settings: positive behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or other reinforcers.

Back 423

Token economies

Front 424

The _____ perspective of personality takes behaviorism one step further, focusing not just on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on how we interact with that environment . Albert Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism is a central idea to this perspective.

Back 424

social cognitive

Front 425

_____ refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings , behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation.

Back 425

Reciprocal determinism

Front 426

the _____ perspective of personality holds that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain.

Back 426

biological

Front 427

_____ approach to therapy includes interventions that rally around symptom reduction of psychological disorders. In other words, this approach assumes that any disorder has roots in biomedical arenas, and thus the solution should also be of a biomedical nature.

Back 427

Biomedical

Front 428

This method assumes that there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individual’s disorder . The biological component of a disorder is something in the body, like having a particular genetic syndrome. The psychological component of a disorder stems from the individual’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors. Finally, the disorder’s social component results from the individual’s surroundings and can include issues of perceived class in society and even discrimination or stigmatization.

Back 428

Biopsychosocial

Front 429

Individuals with a _____ suffer from one or more of the following conditions: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behavior, catatonia, and negative symptoms.

Back 429

psychotic disorder

Front 430

_____ symptoms of schizophrenia are behaviors, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior. Examples include delusions and hallucinations, disorganized thought, and disorganized or catatonic behavior.

Back 430

Positive

Front 431

_____ symptoms of schizophrenia are those that involve the absence of normal or desired behavior, such as disturbance of affect and avolition.

Back 431

Negative

Front 432

_____ are false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individual’s culture that are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.

Back 432

Delusions

Front 433

_____ involve the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual.

Back 433

Delusions of reference

Front 434

_____ involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened.

Back 434

Delusions of persecution

Front 435

_____ involve the belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon.

Back 435

Delusions of grandeur

Front 436

_____ is the belief that one’s thoughts are broadcast directly from one’s head to the external world, and _____ is the belief that thoughts are being placed in one’s head.

Back 436

thought broadcasting, thought insertion

Front 437

_____ are perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality.

Back 437

Hallucinations

Front 438

_____ is characterized by the loosening of associations. This may be exhibited as speech in which ideas shift from one subject to another in such a way that a listener would be unable to follow the train of thought .

Back 438

Disorganized thought

Front 439

A patient’s speech may be so disorganized that it seems to have no structure— as though it were just words thrown together incomprehensibly. This is sometimes called _____.

Back 439

word salad

Front 440

A person with schizophrenia may invent words called _____.

Back 440

neologisms.

Front 441

_____ refers to an inability to carry out activities of daily living, such as paying bills, maintaining hygiene, and keeping appointments.

Back 441

Disorganized behavior

Front 442

_____ refers to certain motor behaviors characteristic of some people with schizophrenia. The patient’s spontaneous movement and activity may be greatly reduced or the patient may maintain a rigid posture, refusing to be moved.

Back 442

Catatonia

Front 443

Catatonic behavior may include useless and bizarre movements not caused by any external stimuli, _____ (repeating another’s words), or _____ (imitating another’s actions).

Back 443

echolalia, echopraxia

Front 444

_____ is a psychological state characterized by general lack of drive, or motivation to pursue meaningful goals.

Back 444

Avolition

Front 445

Affective symptoms of schizophrenia may include _____, in which there is a severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression; _____, in which there are virtually no signs of emotional expression; or _____, in which the affect is clearly discordant with the content of the individual’s speech.

Back 445

blunting, flat affect, inappropriate affect

Front 446

_____ is the experience of feeling or emotion

Back 446

Affect

Front 447

_____ is marked by decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions.

Back 447

avolition

Front 448

The_____ hypothesis states that schizophrenia causes a decline in socioeconomic status, leading to worsening symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis. This is why rates of schizophrenia are much, much higher among the homeless and indigent poor.

Back 448

downward drift

Front 449

Before schizophrenia is diagnosed, a patient often goes through a phase characterized by poor adjustment. This phase is called the _____. This phase is exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behavior, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences.

Back 449

prodromal phase

Front 450

A _____ is a period of at least two weeks with at least five of the following symptoms: prominent and relatively persistent depressed mood, loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia), appetite disturbances, substantial weight changes, sleep disturbances, decreased energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt (sometimes delusional), difficulty concentrating or thinking, psychomotor symptoms (feeling “slowed down”), and thoughts of death or attempts at suicide; at least one of the symptoms must be depressed mood or anhedonia.

Back 450

major depressive episode

Front 451

Symptoms of a major depressive episode: (SIG E. CAPS)

Back 451

Sleep, Interest, Guilt, Energy, Concentration, Appetite, Psychomotor symptoms, and Suicidal thoughts

Front 452

A diagnosis of _____ is given to individuals who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn’t severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode.

Back 452

persistent depressive disorder

Front 453

_____ is not a freestanding diagnosis in the DSM-5, but is best categorized as major depressive disorder with seasonal onset. In this case, depressive symptoms are present only in the winter months.

Back 453

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Front 454

The _____ are a major type of mood disorder characterized by both depression and mania.

Back 454

bipolar disorders (formerly known as manic depression)

Front 455

_____ are characterized by abnormal and persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week with at least three of the following : increased distractibility, decreased need for sleep, inflated self-esteem or grandiosity (beliefs that one is all-powerful, famous, or wealthy), racing thoughts, increased goal-directed activity or agitation, pressured speech or increased talkativeness, and involvement in high-risk behavior.

Back 455

Manic episodes

Front 456

_____ has manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes, whereas _____ has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode.

Back 456

Bipolar I disorder, Bipolar II disorder

Front 457

In contrast to mania, _____ typically does not significantly impair functioning, nor are there psychotic features, although the individual may be more energetic and optimistic.

Back 457

hypomania

Front 458

_____ consists of a combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia that are not severe enough to qualify as major depressive episodes.

Back 458

cyclothymic disorder

Front 459

Symptoms of a manic episode: DIG FAST

Back 459

Distractible, Insomnia (decreased sleep), Grandiosity, Flight of ideas (racing thoughts), Agitation Speech (pressured), and Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)

Front 460

_____ is associated with low norepinephrine and serotonin levels, and _____ are associated with high levels of these neurotransmitters.

Back 460

Depression, manic episodes

Front 461

The neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin are often linked together into what is called the _____. This theory holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania, while too little leads to depression.

Back 461

monoamine or catecholamine theory of depression

Front 462

_____ is the most common psychiatric disorder in women of all ages. For men, in contrast, _____ is the most common psychiatric disorder.

Back 462

Anxiety, substance use disorder

Front 463

_____ is common in the population and is defined as a disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things— making mortgage payments, doing a good job at work, returning emails, political issues, and so on— for at least six months. These individuals often have physical symptoms like fatigue, muscle tension, and sleep problems that accompany the worry.

Back 463

Generalized anxiety disorder

Front 464

The most common type of anxiety disorder is _____.

Back 464

a phobia

Front 465

A _____ is an irrational fear of something that results in a compelling desire to avoid it.

Back 465

phobia

Front 466

_____ is characterized by anxiety that is due to social situations. Individuals with this disorder have persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarrassment;

Back 466

Social anxiety disorder

Front 467

_____ is an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or in situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape.

Back 467

Agoraphobia

Front 468

Symptoms of a _____ include fear and apprehension, trembling, sweating, hyperventilation, and a sense of unreality.

Back 468

panic attack

Front 469

_____ is characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses), which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but cause significant impairment in a person’s life. The relationship between the two is key: obsessions raise the individual’s stress level, and the compulsions relieve this stress.

Back 469

Obsessive– compulsive disorder (OCD)

Front 470

In _____, a person has an unrealistic negative evaluation of his or her personal appearance and attractiveness, usually directed toward a certain body part. This person sees her nose, skin, or stomach as ugly or even horrific when it is actually normal in appearance.

Back 470

body dysmorphic disorder

Front 471

_____ is characterized by an inability to recall past experience that is not due to a neurological disorder.

Back 471

Dissociative amnesia

Front 472

A sudden, unexpected move or purposeless wandering away from one’s home or location of usual daily activities.

Back 472

dissociative fugue

Front 473

In _____, there are two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person’s behavior,

Back 473

dissociative identity disorder (DID, formerly multiple personality disorder)

Front 474

In _____, individuals feel detached from their own mind and body, or from their surroundings. This often presents as a feeling of automation, and can have findings like a failure to recognize one’s reflection.

Back 474

depersonalization/ derealization disorder

Front 475

Individuals with _____ have at least one somatic symptom, which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition, and that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of an excessive amount of time and energy to it, or elevated levels of anxiety.

Back 475

somatic symptom disorder

Front 476

_____ is characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition. Individuals with this disorder are quick to become alarmed about their health, and either excessively check themselves for signs of illness or avoid medical appointments altogether.

Back 476

Illness anxiety disorder

Front 477

A_____ is characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions. The symptoms generally begin soon after the individual experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event, but may not develop until some time has passed after the initiating experience.

Back 477

conversion disorder

Front 478

A _____ is a pattern of behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.

Back 478

personality disorder

Front 479

_____ means that the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon her that is intrusive and bothersome .

Back 479

ego-dystonic

Front 480

In addition to _____, there are ten personality disorders grouped into three clusters: cluster A (paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid), cluster B (antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic), and cluster C (avoidant, dependent, and obsessive– compulsive).

Back 480

general personality disorder

Front 481

Personality disorders in cluster A:

Back 481

paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid (WEIRD)

Front 482

Personality disorders in cluster B:

Back 482

antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic (WILD)

Front 483

Personality disorders in cluster C:

Back 483

avoidant, dependent, and obsessive– compulsive (WORIED)

Front 484

_____ personality disorder is marked by a pervasive mistrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives.

Back 484

Paranoid

Front 485

_____ personality disorder refers to a pattern of odd or eccentric thinking. These individuals may have ideas of reference (similar to delusions of reference, but not as extreme in intensity) as well as magical thinking, such as superstitiousness or belief in clairvoyance.

Back 485

Schizotypal

Front 486

_____ personality disorder is a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.

Back 486

schizoid

Front 487

_____ personality disorder is three times more common in males than in females. The essential feature of the disorder is a pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. This is evidenced by repeated illegal acts, deceitfulness, aggressiveness, or a lack of remorse for said actions.

Back 487

Antisocial

Front 488

_____ personality disorder is two times more common in females than in males. In this disorder, there is pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self-image. Interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable. There may be a profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image, sexual identity, long-term goals, or values. There is often intense fear of abandonment.

Back 488

Borderline

Front 489

_____ personality disorder is characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior. These individuals often wear colorful clothing, are dramatic, and are exceptionally extroverted . They may also use seductive behavior to gain attention.

Back 489

Histrionic

Front 490

In _____ personality disorder, one has a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness, preoccupation with fantasies of success, a need for constant admiration and attention, and characteristic disturbances in interpersonal relationships such as feelings of entitlement.

Back 490

narcissistic

Front 491

In _____ personality disorder, the affected individual has extreme shyness and fear of rejection. The individual will see herself as socially inept and is often socially isolated, despite an intense desire for social affection and acceptance.

Back 491

avoidant

Front 492

_____ personality disorder is characterized by a continuous need for reassurance. Individuals with dependent personality disorder tend to remain dependent on one specific person, such as a parent or significant other, to take actions and make decisions.

Back 492

Dependent

Front 493

In _____ personality disorder, the individual is perfectionistic and inflexible, tending to like rules and order. Other characteristics may include an inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, lack of a sense of humor, and maintenance of careful routines.

Back 493

obsessive– compulsive

Front 494

Schizophrenia is highly associated with an excess of _____ in the brain; many medications used to treat schizophrenia block these receptors.

Back 494

dopamine

Front 495

_____ is a type of dementia characterized by gradual memory loss, disorientation to time and place, problems with abstract thought, and a tendency to misplace things. Later stages of the disease are associated with changes in mood or behavior, changes in personality, difficulty with procedural memory, poor judgment, and loss of initiative.

Back 495

Alzheimer’s disease

Front 496

_____ is characterized by bradykinesia (slowness in movement ), resting tremor (a tremor that appears when muscles are not being used), pill-rolling tremor (flexing and extending the fingers while moving the thumb back and forth, as if rolling something in the fingers), masklike facies (a facial expression consisting of static and expressionless facial features, staring eyes, and a partially open mouth), cogwheel rigidity (muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb), and a shuffling gait with stooped posture.

Back 496

Parkinson’s disease

Front 497

The biological basis of this disease is decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra, a layer of cells in the brain that functions to produce dopamine to permit proper functioning of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are critical to initiating and terminating movements, as well as to sustaining repetitive motor tasks and the smoothening of motions.

Back 497

Parkinson’s disease

Front 498

This concept of self is made up of both the intrapersonal self , the ideas an individual has regarding his own abilities, traits, and beliefs; and the interpersonal self, the manner in which others influence creation of the ideal self.

Back 498

Michelangelo phenomenon

Front 499

He was one of the first sociologists to study social processes and interaction.

Back 499

Max Weber

Front 500

Actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around.

Back 500

Social action

Front 501

_____ considers just the individual that is surrounded by others. When examining _____, we will look at the behavior and actions of two or more individuals who take one another into account.

Back 501

Social action, social interaction

Front 502

The tendency to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others. The theory suggests that performance sparks a perceived evaluation in the individual performing.

Back 502

social facilitation

Front 503

The concept that the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (or simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (or complex tasks).

Back 503

Yerkes– Dodson law of social facilitation

Front 504

_____ reflects the idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability, but also by social environment and awareness of that environment.

Back 504

Social facilitation

Front 505

The _____ law is used to describe the relationship between stress or sympathetic arousal and performance . Just as social facilitation can enhance the ability to perform tasks, so can moderate levels of arousal. Arousal can also be an effect of being surrounded by others and feeling pressure to perform.

Back 505

Yerkes –Dodson

Front 506

_____ is a social phenomenon that occurs when individuals are in group settings. Individual behavior can be dramatically different in social environments. This is thought to be due to the presence of a large group that provides anonymity and causes a loss of individual identity.

Back 506

Deindividuation

Front 507

Deindividuation can lead to _____, or behavior against the norm . This aspect of deindividuation attempts to provide an explanation for violent behavior seen in crowds and mobs: in group settings, the individual loses his sense of individuality and becomes an anonymous part of a group. With anonymity, he is more likely to act in a manner that is inconsistent with his normal self. This is further enhanced when the group is in uniform or masked, disguising the individual within the group and increasing anonymity.

Back 507

antinormative behavior

Front 508

The _____ is another observed phenomenon that occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present. It has been shown that the likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to the number of bystanders. In other words, the more people standing by, the less likely any one of those people is to help.

Back 508

bystander effect

Front 509

Considering the bystander effect, people in groups are less likely to _____, take cues from _____, and feel less _____ for taking action.

Back 509

Notice danger, the group, and responsibility

Front 510

_____ refers to the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually.

Back 510

Social loafing

Front 511

_____ refers to the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual.

Back 511

Peer pressure

Front 512

When an individual’s state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group. Upon doing so, however, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual. To eliminate the sense of internal conflict, the individual experiences an identify shift wherein the individual adopts the standards of the group as her own.

Back 512

identity shift effect.

Front 513

_____, the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions. This generally leads to an internal state of discomfort, which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion . Individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these thoughts.

Back 513

cognitive dissonance

Front 514

His conformity experiment showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by the group.

Back 514

Solomon Asch

Front 515

In contrast to social action, _____ explores the ways in which two or more individuals can both shape each other’s behavior. These include group processes and establishment of culture.

Back 515

social interaction

Front 516

_____ describes the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group.

Back 516

Group polarization (choice shift at the group level)

Front 517

_____ refers to a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision. In an attempt to eliminate or minimize conflict among the group members, consensus decisions are reached without alternate ideas being assessed. In these cases, the desire to agree with the group causes a loss of independent critical thinking. The group also begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints, seeing their own ideas as correct without question.

Back 517

Groupthink

Front 518

Irving Janis conducted the first research on this theory in the 1970s.

Back 518

Groupthink

Front 519

A factor within groupthink, it is the creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking.

Back 519

Illusion of invulnerability

Front 520

A factor within groupthink, it is ignoring warnings against the idea of the group

Back 520

Collective rationalization

Front 521

A factor within groupthink, it is the belief that the group’s decisions are morally correct.

Back 521

Illusion of morality

Front 522

A factor within groupthink, it is the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions

Back 522

Excessive stereotyping

Front 523

A factor within groupthink, it is the pressure put on anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group, viewing the opposition as disloyal.

Back 523

Pressure for conformity

Front 524

A factor within groupthink, it is the withholding of opposing views.

Back 524

Self-censorship

Front 525

A factor within groupthink, it is the false sense of agreement within the group.

Back 525

Illusion of unanimity

Front 526

A factor within groupthink, it is the appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views.

Back 526

Mindguards

Front 527

_____ can be defined as the beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people. It is learned through living within a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them.

Back 527

Culture

Front 528

_____ is the process by which an individual’s or group’s behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group. This can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one.

Back 528

Cultural assimilation

Front 529

The four primary factors that can be used to assess the completeness of assimilation:

Back 529

socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and intermarriage.

Front 530

Assimilation can be slowed by the creation of _____, which are locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity. These are most common in urban areas and often have names like Chinatown or Little Italy.

Back 530

ethnic enclaves

Front 531

_____ refer to a group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong. They can be perceived as negative when they subvert the majority culture’s definitions of normalcy. Symbolic attachment to things such as clothing or music can differentiate the group from the majority. They can be formed based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and other differentiating factors from the whole of society.

Back 531

Subcultures

Front 532

The process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs.

Back 532

socialization

Front 533

_____ occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity. _____ is the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society. This type of socialization occurs outside of the home and is based on learning the rules of specific social environments.

Back 533

Primary socialization, Secondary socialization

Front 534

_____ is the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships.

Back 534

Anticipatory socialization

Front 535

_____ is another process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change, and can have positive or negative connotations

Back 535

Resocialization

Front 536

Sociologists define _____ as societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior.

Back 536

norms

Front 537

_____ are widely observed social norms.

Back 537

Mores

Front 538

_____ provide us with a sense of what is appropriate, what we should do, and what is considered taboo, or socially unacceptable . They exist for behavior, speech, dress, home life, and more and can differ between groups within a society, and also between different cultures.

Back 538

Norms

Front 539

_____ are norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular contexts.

Back 539

Folkways

Front 540

_____ refers to any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society.

Back 540

Deviance

Front 541

_____ is the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society.

Back 541

Social stigma

Front 542

This theory posits that the labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person’s self-image. This can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity.

Back 542

Labeling Theory

Front 543

According to _____ theory, deviance can be learned through interactions with others. While deviance is often associated with negative behavior such as crime, functional theorists argue that it is necessary for social order. These theorists argue that deviance provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity within society, and can even promote social change.

Back 543

differential association

Front 544

_____ is matching one’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms.

Back 544

Conformity

Front 545

A type of conformity, _____ involves changing one’s behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group.

Back 545

Internalization

Front 546

A type of conformity, _____ refers to the acceptance of others’ ideas without questioning them.

Back 546

Identification

Front 547

_____ is a change in behavior based on a direct request.

Back 547

Compliance

Front 548

Techniques used to gain compliance:

Back 548

Foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, lowball, and that's-not-all

Front 549

_____ is changing one’s behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure.

Back 549

obedience

Front 550

_____ focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior .

Back 550

Social cognition

Front 551

An _____ is the expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario.

Back 551

attitude

Front 552

The _____ component of attitude refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude.

Back 552

affective

Front 553

The _____ component of attitude is the way a person acts with respect to something.

Back 553

behavioral

Front 554

The _____ component of attitude is the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components.

Back 554

cognitive

Front 555

Components of Attitude: (ABC)

Back 555

Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive

Front 556

The _____ theory states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.

Back 556

functional attitudes

Front 557

The _____ function of attitude is important in that it provides consistency and stability: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences , and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior.

Back 557

knowledge

Front 558

The _____ function of attitude allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity.

Back 558

ego-expressive

Front 559

The _____ function of attitude is the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed.

Back 559

adaptive

Front 560

The _____ function of attitude protects our self-esteem or justifies actions that we know are wrong.

Back 560

ego-defensive

Front 561

The _____ model separates individuals on a continuum, based on their processing of persuasive information.

Back 561

elaboration likelihood

Front 562

Per the elaboration likelihood model, those who elaborate extensively; that is, those who think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought. This deep thinking is referred to as _____.

Back 562

central route processing

Front 563

Per the elaboration likelihood model, those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility. This is known as _____.

Back 563

peripheral route processing

Front 564

_____ postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. According to this idea, behavior is not learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (such as thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior.

Back 564

Social cognitive theory

Front 565

_____ are positions in society that are used to classify individuals.

Back 565

Statuses

Front 566

There are three key types of statuses:

Back 566

ascribed, achieved, and master statuses.

Front 567

An _____ is a status that is given involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender, and family background.

Back 567

ascribed status

Front 568

An _____ is a status that is gained as a result of one’s efforts or choices.

Back 568

achieved status

Front 569

A _____ is the status by which a person is most identified. This status is typically the most important status the individual holds and affects all aspects of that person’s life. It is also generally how people view themselves and often holds a symbolic value.

Back 569

master status

Front 570

Each status has a _____, or a set of beliefs , values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for those who hold the status.

Back 570

role

Front 571

_____ is the carrying out of behaviors associated with a given role.

Back 571

Role performance

Front 572

The various roles associated with a status are referred to as a _____.

Back 572

role set

Front 573

_____ is difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles, whereas _____ is difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role. _____ is the dropping of one identity for another.

Back 573

Role conflict, role strain, Role exit

Front 574

_____ are groups to which an individual belongs and can be contrasted with _____, with which an individual competes or is in opposition. Finally, _____ are groups that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves.

Back 574

In-groups, out-groups, reference groups

Front 575

The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished two major types of groups. His theory is known as Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, which translates to _____ and _____. Gemeinschaft refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography. Gesellschaft refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal.

Back 575

community and society

Front 576

_____ is a technique for observing, classifying , and measuring the interactions within small groups.

Back 576

Interaction process analysis (aka system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)

Front 577

There are three fundamental dimensions of group interaction:

Back 577

dominance vs. submission , friendliness vs. unfriendliness, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive.

Front 578

A group holds power over its members, creating group pressure that ultimately shapes members’ behaviors. This is called _____; individuals are compliant with the group’s goals, even when the group’s goals may be in direct contrast to the individual’s goal.

Back 578

group conformity

Front 579

The term _____ is used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individuals or groups.

Back 579

network

Front 580

_____ are entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and a culture.

Back 580

organizations

Front 581

A _____ is a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control.

Back 581

bureaucracy

Front 582

a bureaucracy has these six characteristics:

Back 582

paid, nonelected officials on a fixed salary; officials who are provided rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office; regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions upon passing exams or milestones; officials who enter the organization by holding an advanced degree or training; responsibilities, obligations, privileges, and work procedures rigidly defined by the organization; and responsibility for meeting the demands of one’s position.

Front 583

The _____ states that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group.

Back 583

iron law of oligarchy

Front 584

_____ is commonly used to refer to a shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability , calculability, and control in bureaucratic societies.

Back 584

McDonaldization

Front 585

_____ is the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors.

Back 585

Self-presentation (aka impression management)

Front 586

The _____ was first established by Charles Darwin. Darwin stated that emotional expression involves a number of components: facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes. Darwin claimed that expression is consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures. Darwin also stated that primates and animals exhibit rudimentary muscle actions that are similar to those used by humans for facial expressions.

Back 586

basic model of emotional expression

Front 587

The _____ is closely related to the basic model of emotional expression, and accepts that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression.

Back 587

appraisal model

Front 588

The_____ assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions. Instead, emotions are based on experiences and the situational context alone. It also suggests that certain emotions can only exist within social encounters and that emotions are expressed differently— and thus play different roles— across cultures.

Back 588

social construction model

Front 589

Cultural expectations of emotions are often referred to as _____.

Back 589

display rules

Front 590

A _____ is a shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme. They influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions, and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced.

Back 590

cultural syndrome

Front 591

_____ refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us.

Back 591

Impression management

Front 592

When describing impression management, theorists describe three “selves”:

Back 592

the authentic self, the ideal self, and the tactical self.

Front 593

The_____describes who the person actually is, including both positive and negative attributes.

Back 593

authentic self

Front 594

The_____ refers to who we would like to be under optimal circumstances .

Back 594

ideal self

Front 595

The _____ refers to who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others’ expectations of us.

Back 595

tactical self

Front 596

The inpression management strategy characterized by giving information about oneself to establish an identity.

Back 596

Self-disclosure

Front 597

The inpression management strategy characterized by using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image.

Back 597

Managing appearances

Front 598

The inpression management strategy characterized by using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over.

Back 598

Ingratiation

Front 599

The inpression management strategy characterized by making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses.

Back 599

Aligning actions

Front 600

The inpression management strategy characterized by Imposing an identity onto another person.

Back 600

Alter-casting

Front 601

Erving Goffman described impression management through the _____, using the metaphor of a theatrical performance to describe how individuals create images of themselves in various situations.

Back 601

dramaturgical approach

Front 602

Considering Goffman's dramatugical approach to impression management, the_____ is where the actor is in front of the audience , and performs according to the setting, role, and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see. In contrast, the _____ is where the actor is not being observed by an audience, and he is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image, without having to worry about ruining his performance.

Back 602

front stage, back stage

Front 603

_____ states that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain.

Back 603

cognitive neoassociation model

Front 604

Four main types of attachment styles have been described:

Back 604

secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized.

Front 605

_____ attachment is seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to. The child will be upset at the departure of the caregiver and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver. The child trusts that the caregiver will be there for comfort, and while the child can be comforted by a stranger, he or she will clearly prefer the caregiver.

Back 605

Secure

Front 606

_____ attachment results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child . Given the choice, these children will show no preference between a stranger and the caregiver. They show little or no distress when the caregiver leaves and little or no relief when the caregiver returns.

Back 606

Avoidant

Front 607

_____ attachment occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child’s distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully. As such, the child is unable to form a secure base as he or she cannot consistently rely on the caregiver’s response. The child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns, often displaying ambivalence.

Back 607

Ambivalent (anxious– ambivalent attachment)

Front 608

Children with _____ attachment show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver’s absence or presence, but instead can show a mix of different behaviors. These can include avoidance or resistance; seeming dazed, frozen, or confused; or repetitive behaviors like rocking .

Back 608

disorganized

Front 609

_____ is the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network. It can be divided into many different categories: emotional, esteem, material, informational , and network support.

Back 609

social support

Front 610

The behavior of _____, or seeking out and eating food, is driven by biological, psychological, and social influences . Biologically, hunger is driven by a complex pathway involving both neurotransmitters and hormones. The sensation of hunger is controlled by the _____. Specifically, the _____ promotes hunger, while the _____ responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety.

Back 610

foraging, hypothalamus, lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus

Front 611

A _____ describes the organization of a group’s sexual behavior.

Back 611

mating system

Front 612

_____ is the selection of a mate based on attraction.

Back 612

Mate choice, or intersexual selection,

Front 613

_____ refers to how choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate.

Back 613

Mate bias

Front 614

Mate bias may carry _____ benefits by providing material advantages , protection, or emotional support, or _____ benefits by promoting better survival in offspring.

Back 614

direct, indirect

Front 615

There are five recognized mechanisms of mate choice:

Back 615

Phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, Fisherian/runway selection, indicator traits, and genetic compatibility.

Front 616

The mechanism of mate choice where observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex. Usually, these traits indicate increased production and survival of offspring.

Back 616

Phenotypic benefits

Front 617

The mechanism of mate choice that is facilitated by the development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population.

Back 617

Sensory bias

Front 618

The mechanism of mate choice produced by a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time.

Back 618

Fisherian or runaway selection

Front 619

The mechanism of mate choice where a trait that signifies overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates. Notably, these traits may or may not be genetic in origin.

Back 619

Indicator traits

Front 620

The mechanism of mate choice defined by the creation of mate pairs that, when combined, have complementary genetics. This theory provides a mechanism for the reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population: attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disease-carrying allele.

Back 620

Genetic compatibility

Front 621

According to this theory, one individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost.

Back 621

empathy– altruism hypothesis

Front 622

When an _____ is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising. The strategies are thus inherited traits passed along with the population, with the object of the game being becoming more fit than competitors.

Back 622

evolutionary stable strategy (ESS).

Front 623

_____ is a measure of an organism’s success in the population. This is based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others.

Back 623

inclusive fitness

Front 624

_____ provides the tools to make judgments and impressions regarding other people.

Back 624

Social perception (social cognition)

Front 625

There are three primary components of social perception:

Back 625

the perceiver, the target, and the situation.

Front 626

In social cognition, the _____ is influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state.

Back 626

perceiver

Front 627

In social cognition, the _____ refers to the person about which the perception is made.

Back 627

target

Front 628

In social cognition, the _____ is also very important in developing perception. A given social context can determine what information is available to the perceiver.

Back 628

situation

Front 629

Individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver. This idea is referred to as _____.

Back 629

the reliance on central traits

Front 630

This theory states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related. Making assumptions about people based on the category in which they are placed is known as stereotyping.

Back 630

implicit personality theory

Front 631

The _____ is a cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one’s overall impression of the individual. It is the tendency to allow a general impression about a person (I like Judy) to influence other, more specific evaluations about a person (Judy is a good mother, Judy is trustworthy, Judy can do no wrong).

Back 631

halo effect

Front 632

According to the ______, good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people; noble actions are rewarded, and evil actions are punished. Consequences may be attributed to a universal restoring force; in Hinduism, this force is referred to as karma.

Back 632

Just-world hypothesis

Front 633

Self-identity and perception can be skewed through_____. This bias refers to the fact that individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors. The notion that all good things that happen are based on our good traits and behaviors, and that all bad things are based on situational factors beyond our control, is used to protect our self-esteem.

Back 633

self-serving bias, also known as self-serving attributional bias

Front 634

_____ focuses on the need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures.

Back 634

Self-enhancement

Front 635

_____ focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people’s behavior.

Back 635

Attribution theory

Front 636

Fritz Heider , one of the founding fathers of attribution theory, divided the causes for attribution into two main categories:

Back 636

dispositional (internal) and situational (external).

Front 637

In attribution theory, _____ attributions are those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics.

Back 637

Dispositional (internal)

Front 638

In attribution theory, _____ attributions are those that relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure.

Back 638

Situational (external)

Front 639

In order to understand the behavior of others, a variety of cues are used. These include:

Back 639

consistency cues, consensus cues, and distinctiveness cues.

Front 640

In attirbution theory, _____ cues refers to the consistent behavior of a person over time. The more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person.

Back 640

Consistency cues

Front 641

In attribution theory, _____ cues relate to the extent to which a person’s behavior differs from others. If a person deviates from socially expected behavior, we are likely to form a dispositional attribution about the person’s behavior.

Back 641

Consensus

Front 642

In attribution theory, _____ cues refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios. If a person’s behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it.

Back 642

Distinctiveness

Front 643

The _____ posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts.

Back 643

fundamental attribution error

Front 644

_____ occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic.

Back 644

Attribute substitution

Front 645

The _____ attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence. _____ groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources; _____ groups are those that have high status within society.

Back 645

stereotype content model, warm, and competent

Front 646

The four clasifications of sterotype in the Sterotype Content Model:

Back 646

Paternalistic, Admiration, Contemptuous, Envious

Front 647

_____ stereotypes are those in which the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored.

Back 647

Paternalistic

Front 648

_____ stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger.

Back 648

Contemptuous

Front 649

_____ stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust.

Back 649

Envious

Front 650

_____ stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings.

Back 650

Admiration

Front 651

_____ refers to the concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one’s social group. It can cause reduced performance, encourage self-handicapping strategies, and lower one’s personal investment in an activity.

Back 651

Stereotype threat

Front 652

_____ is defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity.

Back 652

prejudice

Front 653

_____ is a common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others.

Back 653

Propaganda

Front 654

There are a variety of social factors that influence prejudice. Three of the most important are:

Back 654

power , prestige, and class.

Front 655

Considering the factors that influence prejudice, _____ refers to the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles , and their ability to control resources.

Back 655

Power

Front 656

Considering the factors that influence prejudice, _____ is the level of respect shown to a person by others.

Back 656

Prestige

Front 657

Considering the factors that influence prejudice, _____ refers to socioeconomic status.

Back 657

Class

Front 658

_____ refers to the practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one’s own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religion.

Back 658

Ethnocentrism

Front 659

Considering ethnocentrism,an _____ is a social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member. An _____, on the other hand, refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify.

Back 659

in-group, out-group

Front 660

_____ is the perception of another culture as different from one’s own, but with the recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself.

Back 660

Cultural relativism

Front 661

_____ occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others.

Back 661

Discrimination (While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior)

Front 662

Considering discrimination, _____ refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group, whereas _____ refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution .

Back 662

Individual discrimination, institutional discrimination

Front 663

In sociology, _____ focuses on large groups and social structure, whereas _____ focuses on small groups and the individual.

Back 663

Macrosociology, microsociology

Front 664

_____ is a system of people within a society organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships

Back 664

social structure

Front 665

_____ is the study of the structure and function of each part of society.

Back 665

Functionalism or functional analysis

Front 666

In sociology, a _____ to refer to the beneficial consequences of people’s actions. According to these theorists, They help keep society in balance. In contrast, _____ are harmful consequences of people’s actions as they undermine a social system’s equilibrium.

Back 666

function, dysfunctions

Front 667

If an action is intended to help some part of a system, it is a _____ function. However, these functions can also have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society ; these are called _____ functions. These functions may flow logically from the former functions, but are unstated or unrecognized.

Back 667

manifest, latent

Front 668

_____, which is based on the works of Karl Marx, focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order.

Back 668

Conflict theory

Front 669

The study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.

Back 669

symbolic interactionism

Front 670

_____ focuses on how individuals put together their social reality . It arises from humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle.

Back 670

Social constructionism

Front 671

_____ are well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. They regulate the behavior of individuals in core areas of society.

Back 671

Social institutions

Front 672

The six major social institutions:

Back 672

Family, education, religion, government, economy, medicine

Front 673

Physicians are expected to adhere to four key tenets of medical ethics:

Back 673

Beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, Justice

Front 674

_____ can be defined as encompassing the entire lifestyle for a given group.

Back 674

Culture

Front 675

Sociologists view culture according to two different categories :

Back 675

material culture and symbolic culture

Front 676

_____ culture is associated with artifacts (objects). _____ culture is associated with ideas.

Back 676

Material, Symbolic

Front 677

_____ are what a person deems important in life, which dictates one’s ethical principals and standards of behavior. A _____ is something that an individual accepts to be truth.

Back 677

Values, belief

Front 678

When a cultural difference impedes interaction with others it is called a _____.

Back 678

Cultural barrier

Front 679

A _____ is a formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior. Rituals tend to have a prescribed order of events or routine.

Back 679

ritual

Front 680

_____ describes a specific connection to one’s ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life.

Back 680

Symbolic ethnicity

Front 681

_____ can be defined as the direction of one’s sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes.

Back 681

Sexual orientation

Front 682

Alfred Kinsey was a pioneer in human sexuality, and described sexuality on a zero to six scale, with zero representing exclusive heterosexuality and six representing exclusive homosexuality. When ranked on this _____, few people actually fell into the categories of zero and six, with a significant proportion of the population falling somewhere between the two.

Back 682

Kinsey scale

Front 683

children per woman per lifetime

Back 683

Fertility rate

Front 684

children per 1000 people per year

Back 684

Birth rate

Front 685

deaths per 1000 people per year

Back 685

Mortality rate

Front 686

immigration rate minus emigration rate

Back 686

Migration rate

Front 687

_____ is a specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system.

Back 687

demographic transition

Front 688

Demographic transition can be divided into four stages:

Back 688

Stage 1: preindustrial society; birth and death rates are both high Stage 2: improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and wages cause death rates to drop Stage 3: improvements in contraception, women’s rights, and a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy cause birth rates (births per 1000 individuals per year) to drop. Further, with an industrializing society, children must go to school for many years to be productive in society and may need to be supported by parents for a longer period of time than was formerly the case; families thus have fewer children Stage 4: an industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low.

Front 689

_____ focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder.

Back 689

Malthusian theory

Front 690

_____ are organized either to promote or to resist social change. Those that promote social change are termed _____; those that resist social change are _____.

Back 690

Social movements, proactive, reactive

Front 691

_____ is defined as a category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society. This can be identified by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a given slice of society.

Back 691

Social class

Front 692

_____ focuses on social inequalities and studies the basic question of who gets what and why. It is thus related to one’s socioeconomic status (SES).

Back 692

Social stratification

Front 693

_____ derives from clearly identifiable characteristics, such as age, gender, and skin color; _____ is acquired via direct, individual efforts. In other words, the former is involuntary, while the latter is obtained through hard work or merit . Caste and estate systems stratify by the former SES, while class systems stratify by the latter SES.

Back 693

Ascribed status, achieved status

Front 694

There are three major types of status:

Back 694

ascribed, achieved, and master status.

Front 695

Early sociologists explained that social inequality is further accelerated by what is called _____, which refers to a lack of social norms , or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society.

Back 695

anomie

Front 696

_____ focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance. Anomic conditions include excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation; these all erode social solidarity.

Back 696

Strain theory

Front 697

sociologists have focused on the importance of social trust in the proper functioning of civil society. Social trust comes from two primary sources:

Back 697

social norms of reciprocity (I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine) and social networks.

Front 698

_____ can be considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards; the greater the investment, the higher the level of social integration and inclusion.

Back 698

social capital

Front 699

One of the main forms of social capital is the social network. Social networks can create two types of social inequality:

Back 699

situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within a network, and one’s centrality within that network).

Front 700

Communities are joined together through ties. _____ refer to peer group and kinship contacts, which are quantitatively small but qualitatively powerful. _____ refer to social connections that are personally superficial, such as associates, but that are large in number and provide connections to a wide range of other individuals.

Back 700

Strong ties, Weak ties

Front 701

_____ is typically the result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements.

Back 701

social mobility

Front 702

Social mobility can either occur within a generation or across generations. _____ changes in social status happen within a person’s lifetime, while _____ changes are from parents to children.

Back 702

Intragenerational, intergenerational

Front 703

Social inequality, especially poverty , can be passed on from one generation to the next. This idea is referred to as _____.

Back 703

social reproduction

Front 704

_____ can arise from this sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel alienated from society. However, the problem is that this attitude can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect.

Back 704

Social exclusion

Front 705

_____ focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations. Examining space helps to illuminate social inequalities because it attends to how geography influences social processes.

Back 705

Spatial inequality

Front 706

In epidemiology, _____ is defined as the number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given amount of time;

Back 706

Incidence

Front 707

In epidemiology, _____ is a measure of the number of cases of an illness overall—whether new or chronic— per population in a given amount of time;

Back 707

Prevalence

Front 708

In epidemiology, _____ is the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease, while _____ refers to deaths caused by a given disease.

Back 708

Morbidity, mortality

Front 709

"= new cases / population at risk / time"

Back 709

Incidence

Front 710

"= total cases / total population / time"

Back 710

Prevalence

Front 711

_____ covers patients over the age of 65, those with end-stage renal disease, and those with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). _____ covers patients who are in significant financial need.

Back 711

Medicare, Medicaid

Front 712

_____ is when people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities, such as shelter, food, clothing, and water. _____ is when one is poor in comparison to a larger population.

Back 712

Absolute poverty, Relative poverty