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128 Cards in this Set
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What is learning |
An enduring change in the mechanisms of behavior involving specific stimuli and or responses that results from prior experience with similar stimuli and responses (No universal definition) |
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What does learning do |
Is the development of a new behavior or the decrease or loss of a previously common behavior |
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What are habitual responses |
Make up a lot of our daily behaviors -brushing teeth |
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What was the belied of behaviour before Descartes |
Believed that all human behavior was a result of free will and conscious intent |
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What are Descartes 2 classes of human behavior (Cartesian Dualism) |
Involuntary (automatic reactions mediated by reflexes)
Voluntary (persons intent to act in that manner, doesn't need to be triggered) |
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What is the 2 classes of human behavior lead to |
Mentalism (how our mind works and contents) Reflexology (mechanisms of reflexive behavior)
Both are the foundation of modern studying of learning |
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Process of involuntary/reflexive behavior |
1) stimuli detected by sense organ 2) information relayed to brain through nerves 3) the call for action sent through nerves to muscles to produce the involuntary response |
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What is voluntary behavior |
-mind causes it -happens independently from external stimulation -mind is connected to the body by the pineal gland at the base of the brain |
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What are the two philosophical approaches to the study of the mind |
Nativism Empiricism |
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What is nativism |
All humans are born with certain innate concepts that did not require experience -mind doesn't function in a predictable manner |
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What is empiricism |
All ideas or concepts are acquired directly or indirectly through experience -mind is predictable and follows laws -associations are important |
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What is the primary set of rules for associations |
Created by Aristotle 3 principles: -contiguity (if two events are repeatedly happening together in space and time)
-similarity (if two items are similar in some way)
-contrast (if two items contrast) |
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What is the secondary set of rules for associations (Ebbinghaus) |
Factors that influence the development of associations -intensity -frequency (or recently) -the number of associations |
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What were the assumptions made by Descartes |
-sensory and motor messages travel the same nerves -nerves are hollow tubes -reflexs responsible for 1 stimuli (engery of stimulus= strength of response) -all reflexes are innate (All proven incorrect). |
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What did bell and Magendie discover |
Separate nerves involved in the transmission of sensory and motor information |
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What did Sechenov discover |
The intensity of the response doe not always depend on the intensity of the triggering stimuli |
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What did Pavlov discover |
Not all reflexes are innate and that new reflexes to stimuli can be established through the creation of associations
(Used functional neurology to study the conditioning reflexes to understand nervus system) |
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What are the 3 sources for the drive to conduct research on learning principles with animals |
-interest in comparative cognition and evolution of intelligence
-interest in the function of thr nervous system (functional neurology)
-interest in developing animal models to examine certain components of human behavior |
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What is comparative cognition |
- suggested that humans evolved from a lower form
- mental abilities of humans evolved
-a continuity from human to animals
-sparked the tracing of evolution of intelligence by studying non human animals |
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What is functional neurology |
The study of learning processes is influenced by the use of studies of learning in non human animals to find out more about how the nervous system works - behavioral studies of learning provide insight about the machinery of the nervous system |
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Animal models of human behavior |
Believed that research with nonhuman animals can help us understand human behavior ( careful with generalization)
Allow for questions that are difficult or impossible to study with humans -easily to control -simpler -less expensive |
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Why is the term "change in the mechanisms of behavior" used in learning definition |
Because many factors other than learning can influence behavior or result in a change in behavior |
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What is performance |
An organisms actions at a particular time |
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What influences performance |
Motivation Sensory and motor capabilities Opportunity Learning -a change in behavior doesn't mean learning as these other factors could cause a change in behavior |
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What are mechanisms that cause short-lasting behavioral change |
-fatigue -change in stimulus conditions -change in motivational or physiological state |
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What is maturation (long-lasting behavior change) |
Long term change that does not require special experience for the change to happen |
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What is efficient cause (long-lasting behavior change) |
The necessary and sufficient conditions for producing a behavioral outcome -proximal cause |
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What is material causes (long-lasting behavior change) |
Physical changes in the versus system that mediate learning -proximate cause |
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What are formal causes (long-lasting behavior change) |
Models or theories of learning |
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What are final causes (long-lasting behavior change) |
Explanations of learning that emphasize its function or utility -ultimate cause |
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Whar are experimental techniques |
Should be used to study behavior -intrested in how peior experiences causes changes in behavior for the long term Causes can be identified by yhe outcomes and cant be directly observed Identify causes without presumed cause by comparing results |
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What is the general process approach |
Tried to find the commonalities between events and create general laws Should be able to study any species that exhibits learning |
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General process approach |
-assumed that the phenomena of interest are thr product of elemental processes -elemental processes are generalized from 1 situation to the next -need experimental evidence to confirm the generality of learning processes |
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What does research on learning with non human animals allow |
-more precise control of past experiences -need animals to learn the evolution and biological basis of learning -processes may be simpler -animals don't perform to please the experimenter (no demand characteristics) |
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Publics concern with the use of animals |
-should be treated humanely (government guidelines) -should not be exploited (more animals used in agriculture) |
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What are the 3 r's (alternatives to animal research) |
- replacement of animals with other techniques -reducd the number of animals used -refine techniques to reduce amount of suffering |
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What are the proposed alternatives to animal research |
Observational techniques (need to manipulate) Plants ( dont have nervus systems) Tissue cultures (dont tell how processed with within) Computer simulations ( to create programs there must be a lot of knowledgeable of learning processes which requires research with living organisms) |
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What is elicited behaviour |
Beahvior that occurs in response to specific environmental stimuli -happens all the time -reflexes are the simplest form of elicited behavior -is modified by experience |
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Why is behavior not completely flexible |
Have pre-existing Behavior systems that put constraints on how learning happens and what the outcome of learning will be |
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What are the two events involved in reflexes |
- an eliciting stimulus -a corresponding response that is linked (A particular response is elicited by only a restricted number of stimuli) |
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What are the 3 neurons that make a reflex arc |
1) sensory neurons (afferent neurons) 2) interneourons 3) motor neurons (efferent neurons) |
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What are some reflexes of babies |
Head turning reflex Sucking reflex |
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What are modal action patterns (MAP) |
Elicited behaviours that are specific to particular species -threshhold varied due to circumstances(physiological state, recent actions) |
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What are some things action patterns are involved in |
Sexual Territorial Aggression Prey capture Feeding behavior |
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Determining MAP |
-easy to identify in simple reflexes -difficult to usolate if response happens in the course of complex social interactions |
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What are sign stimulus or releasing stimulus |
The specific features or stimulus required to elicit thr modal action pattern |
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What are supernormal stimuli |
A stimulus that is more effective than the naturally occurring stimulus that elicits the MAP -is an unusually effective stimulus |
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What are appetitive behavior |
Early components of a behavioral sequence that brings the organism into contact with the stimuli that will release the respons -less stereotyped and can take on a variety of forms -shaped by learning
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What are consummatory behavior |
The end components of a behaviour sequence that are the actions that bring a species typical response sequence to completion -more stereotyped -tend to be species typical MAP's |
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What happens due to repeated stimulation |
-Alter the nature of the excited behavior -Can lead to either the increase or decrease of responding ( habituation or sensitization) |
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What are habitation effects |
Decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation |
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What are sensitization effects |
Increase in responsiveness with repeated stimulation -if currently aroused, repeating a stimulus will cause a stronger reactions |
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What are habituation and sensitization involved in |
Involve neurophysiological changes that hinder or facilitate the transmission of neural impulses to motor neurons -habituation doesn't happen because of changes to nervous system block sensory neural impulses from reaching motor neurons |
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What do habituation and sensitization help with |
-help determine which stimuli to play attention to and which ones to ignore -helps organize and focus behavior |
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What is sensory adaptation |
A temporary reduction in yhe sensitivity of sense organs caused by repeated or excessive stimulation -sense organ becomes temporarily insensitive to stimulation |
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What is fatigue |
A temporary decrease in behaviour caused by repeated or excessive use of the muscles involved in the beahviour |
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In habituation how does an organism reduce its responding to a stimulus even though it is still capable of it |
1) sensing the stimulus -habituation is response specific -one response to the stimulus may decline but other responses are still made |
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In habituation how does an organism reduce its responding to a stimulus even though it is still capable of it |
2) making the muscle movements necessary for the response -habituation is stimulus specific -response will recover if new stimulus is presented |
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What does the dual process theory state |
The neural processes underlying decreases in responsiveness and increases in responsiveness to simulation are not the same -both processes can be activated at the same time -the effect (sensitization or habituation) that is exhibited depends on which process is stronger |
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What is the S-R system in Habituation |
The shortest neural pathway that connects the sense organs activated by thr eliciting stimulus and the muscle involved in making the elicited response |
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Whar does the S-R system do |
-enables the animal to make specific responses that are elicited by a particular stimulus -system us activated with each presentation of an eliciting stimulus and causes build up of habituation (Habituation is a universal feature of elicited behavior) |
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What is the state system in sensitization |
Consists of components of nervous systems that determine the organisms general level of responsiveness or readiness to respond |
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State system |
-not activated with each presentation of an eliciting stimulus, rather it is only activated by arousing events (Becomes involved only in special circumstances) -can be affected by emotions and different forms of drugs |
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Characteristics of Habituation and sensitization |
1) Time course (these two effects do not always result in long term behavioral changes, sometimes thry are not considered examples of learning) 2) stimuls specificity |
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Time course for habituation and sensitization |
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What is spontaneous recovery |
Recovery of a response to baseline levels produced by a period of rest after habituation or sensitization |
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Spontaneous recovery and habituation |
-is an identifying characteristic of short term habituation (complete recovery if long enough rest after habituation) -never gets complete recovery when long term habituation effects are present |
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Stimulus specificity in habituation and sensitization |
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What is dishabituation |
A habituated response can be restored by sensitizing an organism with exposure to an extraneous stimulus= dishabituation -refers to recvory in the response to the previously habituated stimulus -the response to the extraneous stimulus is not the response of interest |
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What is biphasic |
One emotion is experienced during the eliciting stimulus and the opposite emotion is experienced when the eliciting stimulus is removed
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Drug tolerance and Habituation |
Habituation is the primary drug reaction -drug will have less of an effect on a multiple time user Habitual users have a strengthening in the after reaction -will have stronger withdrawal symptoms |
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3 characteristics of emotional reactions |
1) biphasic 2) primary reaction becomes weaker with repeated stimulation 3) strengthening of the after reaction with experience |
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What is the opponent process theory |
Assumed neurophysiological mechanisms involved in emotional behavior serve to maintain emotional stability -created to explain 3 features of emotional reactions -opposing forces keep the system in a neutral state (shift causes an opponent process that brings it back) -homeostatic theory |
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What is a homeostatic theory |
Important to minimize deviations from emotional neutrality or stability |
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Opponent process |
Presentation of an emotional eroding stimulus leads to a primary process (A process) which is responsible for the quality of the emotional state and is presence of the stimulus Primary process then leads to opponent process (B process) that generates the opposite emotional reaction Emtional exhibited= primary process- opponent process |
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What happens when the opponent process is inefficient |
- not strong enough to counteract the primary process -with repeated experience the opponent process becomes stronger -becuase strong enough to block primary process and created a strong after reaction when stimulus is removed |
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When happens when opponent process is strengthend |
1) activated sooner after thr onset on the stimulus 2) max intensity becomes greater 3) becomes slower to decay when stimulus is removed |
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Who was Ivan Pavlov |
First sto study classical conditioning systematically -studies were an extension of his research on digestion -found that the sight of food or the person who feeds them a dog ekll release stomach juices (could use this to study associated learning) |
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Who is Edwin Twitmyer |
Independently discovered classical conditioning |
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What were Vul'fson and Snarskii find in their work in Pavlov's lab |
Vul'fson studied salivary responses to substances in the mouth like sour water and sand Snarskii examined salivary responses to artificial stimuli like sour water tinted black In both cases salivation happened when placed in month and later the sight did as well Dogs experienced object learning |
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What is object learning |
Associating different features of the same object - dog apparently came to associate the visual features of the stimuli with their orosrnsory features |
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Know elements of conditioning |
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What is classical conditioning |
The procedure of repeatedly pairing an initially-neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) and an uncomditioned stimulus, through which the conditioned stimulus develops the capacity to elicit a conditioned response -phobias |
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Who conducted fear conditioning |
Conditioning of an emotional reaction Watson and Rayner |
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What did Watson and Rayner do |
Comditioned fear response of a white lab rat in baby Albert -he was not initially scared of many things -was sacred of a hammer hitting a steel bar -fear spead to other white animals |
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Fear conditioning in rats |
US of electrical current to feet CS light or tone CS present shortly before US Reaction to electronial current us freezing Conditioned fear can be measured by freezing or conditioned suppression procedures |
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What us lick suppression procedure |
Measures disruption of locking water when CS is present |
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What are conditioned emotional response (CER) |
-Used to measure fear indirectly -Measures disruption of lever pressing -Useful for measuring response suppression by fear |
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What is the CER Procedure |
Created by Ester and Skinner 1)rats trained to press food lever -CER start at the bar training 2) conditioning phase -CS presented every 1-2 mins -US (shock) presented immediately after CS -bar pressing and response suppression beginning (Rats dont press level when they freeze from fear |
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Results of CER procedure |
-acquring fear to the CS results in a reduction in the lever pressing response when tgr CS is presented -contioned suppression may be complete after 3-5 conditioning trials with the result that the rat doesn't press the lever -cinditioned suppression is specific to the CS |
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How is suppression measured |
The suppression ratio |
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Eyeblink conditioning |
US -puff of air CS- tone -is a discrete reflex -used to investigate basic biological-psychological processes in humans like attention, arousal and basic learning. Because better understanding of the neurobiology of this form of learning |
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Eyeblink conditioning infant experiemtnet |
CS- 1000cps tone for 750ms US - puff of air to right eye Group 1 -CS always ended eith puff of air Group 2 -CS's and US's spaced 4-8 seconds apart in unpaired fashion (Two training sessions 1 week apart) |
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Who did we learn about thr neurobiology of eyeblink conditioning |
Through experiments with rabits CS- light, tone, vibration US- puff of air, mild irritation of skin below the eye |
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Sign tracking/Autoshaping |
-Organism approaches and touches stimuli that indicate the availability of food
-Demonstrates classical conditioning is not restricted to reflex response systems -useful for studying associative learning |
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What happens in sign tracking |
A discrete localized stimulus is presented just prior to each delivery of food Pigeons (Brown) -key lighy up for 8 seconds -food automatically delivered -started pecking the key when it light up rather than food dish |
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What is taste aversion learning |
Developed if a novel flavour is followed by illness or other aversive consequences -caused by classical conditioning |
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What is taste preference |
Learned if novel flavour is followed by positive consequences -caused by classical conditioning |
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Taste aversion learning |
CS- some type of taste US- drug injection, radiation (illness) Result- ingestion of the food item/ solution is suppressed -can involve 1 trial learning -happens even after a long delay -happens even if we know the food didnt not actilly cause the illness |
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What is conditioning trial |
Each pairing of the CS and US |
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What is Intertrial interval (ITI) |
Amount of time between the end of one conditioning trial and the commencement of the next trail |
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What is interstimulus interval (ISI) |
Duration of time from the start of the presentation of the CS to the start of the presentation of the US within a conditioning trial -ISI must be shorter than ITI |
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What is short delayed conditioning (most used) |
Delay the start of the presentation of the US until slightly after the start of the presentation of the CS -CS started each trial -US presented after ( longer than 1 min) -CS may end with the start of the US ot continue during the US |
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What is trace conditioning |
CS presented first followed by presentation of the US -US nit presented until a period of time has passed since the send of the CS -trace interval |
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What is a trace interval |
Gap between the CS and the US |
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What is long delayed conditioning |
-CS started before US -US is delayed for a longer period of time (5-10 mins) -XS continues until the US is presented |
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What is simultaneous conditioning |
CS and US presented at the same time for the same duration |
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What is backward conditioning |
US is presented shortly before the presentation of the CS -only type of conditioning where the US happens before |
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What can excitatory conditioning measure through the use of a test trial |
-present of CS alone - measurement of responses elicited by the CS without any effects from the presence of the US -introduced occasionally during training yo plot the progress of learning -necessary for assessing learning in similataneous and backward conditioning |
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What is magnitude |
How much of the behavior |
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Whar is probability of responding |
How often the CS elicits a conditioned response |
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What is latency |
How soon the CR occurs after the start of the CS |
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What is pseudocondutioning |
Increases in responding seen with repeated pairings of the CS-US can happen as a result of exposure to only the US |
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What are the control procedures of excitatory conditioning |
1) random control prouder 2) explicitly unpaired control |
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What is random control procedure |
-samw number of CS and US -arrange presentations in a way CS and US dont become associated -presnet CS and US at random Can present US during the CS and during intertrial interval -can still provide associative learning |
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What is explicitly unpaired control procedure |
-CS and US presented on separate trials -CS and US presented far enough apart to prevent association -amount of time depends on the response system being used (longer durations for taste aversion) -most effective procedure |
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What does recent research suggest |
The effectiveness of a procedure is not solely the result 9f the CS singal value that varies based on the CS-US interval |
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What is the temporal coding hypothesis |
Learn with the US happens in relation to the CS and learn the association between the CS and US -type of conditioned response depends on the temporal infor the CS provided about the US |
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What is Inhibitory conditioning |
Learn to predict the absence of the US - exposure to aversive stimuli -people perfer predicted ober unpredicted -ability to predict an aversive event means that you can also predict the absence of an aversive event -also predict the absence of positive US |
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What is conditioned inhibitory stimulus |
Stimuli that predict the absence of an aversive event/ stimulus |
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What is the Standard procedure of Inhibitory conditioning |
Two conditioned stimuli CS+ CS- Two types of conditioning trials that are alternated at random -produces results in preventing an outcome that would normally happen |
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What are the 2 conditioning trials |
Excitatory -US is presented announced by the CS+ which provides the excitatory context necessary for conditioned Inhibition Inhibitory -CS+ presented with second CS- but the US does not happen -the CS- is a conditioned inhibitor |
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What is the negative CS-US correlation of inhibitory conditioning |
-no CS+ CS- is negatively correlated with US (US less likely to happen after CS than to other time) -US presented periodically by itself -CS - is presented by absence of US -US happens in the presence of contextual cues so they gain excitatory properties -dosent allwo for the prediction of the US |
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What is the Bidirectional response system |
Can identify opposing responses if working with response systems that can change in opposite directions from normal performance -with inhibitory conditioning may expect that the CS- will elicit behaviors opposite to those elicited by the CS+ |
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What are Bidirectional response system limitations |
-only works with Bidirectional systems -only shows the net effects of excitation and inhibition -not useful when XS acquired both inhibitory and excitatory properties (If inhibition is greater than excitation will see inhibition) |
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What is compound stimulus/summation test |
-assumes conditioned inhibition counteracts conditioned excitation -involves the examination of the effects of a CS- in compound with CS+ -suggests that CS- acts as a safety signal that can reduce the stressful effects of an aversive event |
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What us retardation of acquisition test |
-If a stimulus inhibits a certain response it should be difficult to condutiin that stimulus to elicit that behavior -rate of acquisition of an excitatoty CR response should be slower if a conditioned inhibitor is used as the CS |
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What is prevalence |
-Occurs in a wide range if situations in our daily lives -may play a role in our judgments of causality -used to develop food preferences and aversion -involved in the development of drug tolerance -used as a basis for treatment of phobias |
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