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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
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What are the 2 motivation perspectives |
1) analysis of the association structure of instrumental conditioning (Thorndike) 2) response allocation approach (skinner) |
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What does analysis of the association structure of instrumental conditioning focus on |
Relies heavily on the concept of associations
Molecular perspective -looks at individual responses and their specific antecedents and outcomes |
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What does the response allocation approach focus on |
-Molar and functional perspective
-Focuses on a broader context of the activities an organism is involved in
-interrested in the limits set for activities
-considers long term goals |
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What are the 3 important events in analysis for analysis of the association structure of instrumental conditioning |
The stimulus context (S) The instrumental response (R) The response outcome (O) reienforcer -used to make many associations |
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S-R association (law of effect) |
Between the contextual stimuli and instrumental response -outcome is only to create an association (not involved) -S-R association is solely responsible for the occurrence of R |
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Motivation in S-R association |
Motivation for R was activation of S-R association by exposing an organism to S in the presence of which R was previously reienforced |
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S-O association (expectancy of reward) |
-organisms come to expect a reinforcer during thr course of instrumental conditioning -R ensures S will be experienced in connection with making an R -reinforcement of R results in pairing between S and O -established through classical conditioning |
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What did Hull and Spence suggest with regard to expectancy of reward |
Intrusmental repenting increases during an instrumental conditioning procedure for 2 reasons
1) encountering S motivates R directly though S-R association
2) instrumental response also completed in response to an S-O association that creates reward interest (two process theory) |
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What is the two process theory |
Assumes that classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning are related
-during instrumental, S (R is reinforced in the presence of S) becomes associated with O through classical conditioning
-because S-O association, S comes to motivate R by activating a central emotional state |
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What does the two process theory imply |
That the rate of instrumental response will be modified by the presentation of a classically conditioned stimulus |
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What is the two process theory based on |
1) thr central emotional state develops to motivate R 2) classically conditioned stimulus also elicit central emotional states 3) responding should increase during a performance of a food reienforced response by presenting a CS+ for food because it should increase the food expectancy or hope |
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What is the Pavlovian Instrumental Transfer test |
Phase 1 (instrumental conditioning of R using positive or negative reinforcement)
Phase 2 (classical conditioning where a CS is associated with presence or absence of US)
Phase 3 transfer Phase (organism can engage in R from Phase 1 and Phase 2 CS is presented to see its influence on beha |
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Phase 3 transfer Phase |
If a Pavlovian S-O association motivated R -incrase when CS is presented if CS creates a positive emotion -decrease when CS is presented if CS created a negative emotion |
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Issues with Pavlovian transfer |
Instrumental and classical conditioning can also led to specific reward expectations rather than central emotional states
-CS elicit overt response and not only emotional states -CS can influence instrumental response through the over responsesl it elicits -overt response by the CS influence the behavior required for reinforcement |
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R-O association |
O can't be predicted from S alone -O happens if R is made in the presence of S -S followed by O only if R occurs |
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What common technique is used to prove R-O associations |
Reinforcer devaluation after instrumental conditioning to see if there is a decrease in responding -colwill and Rescorla |
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What does response allocation and behavioral economics focus on (molar) |
How instrumental contingencies put limitations on an organisms activities -behaviours are redistributed as a result |
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What was the historical belief before response allocation |
Reinforcers were special stimuli that strengthened instrumental responses - this was challenged (Consummatory response theory, the premack principle, response deprivation hypothesis) |
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What is the consummatory response theory |
Challenged the idea that reienforcers are stimuli
Species-typical unconditioned responses are elicited by a number of reinforcers
Assumes that species-typical consummatory responses are the critical feature of reinforcers
Switched reienforcers to special types of responses from being special kinda of stimuli -throught to be different from instrumental responses (Behaviors that go along with stimuli are the reinforcers) |
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What is the premack principle |
Reinforcer responses only speical because they happen more frequently than instructional responses
Responses involved with commonly used reinforcers already activities that aminals are highly likely to perform
Instrumental responses are often low probability activities
Differential probability principle
Made people think of reinforces as responses rather than stimuli
No fundamental distinction between instrumental response and reinforcers |
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What is the Differential probability principle |
Difference in response probabilities is essential for reinforcement
Low probability response before the high probability response with reinforce the low probability response
High probability response before the low probability response will not reinforce the high probability response |
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What is the response deprivation hypothesis |
Critical factor for instrumental reinforcement is the restriction of the reinforcer response
Low probability response can act as a reinforcer if it is restricted
Response deprivation is more important in relation to motivation of responses than Differential response probability
Reinforcer is the result of instrumental conditioning |
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What is the response allocation approach |
Organisms have an optimal distribution of behaviors thry try to maintain
Focuses on instrumental response reinforcer contingencies thar disrupt behavior stability and push away from optimal distribution of activities
Behavior is assumed to change to correct thus devaiation -introducing an instrumental contingency can disrupt the behavioral bliss point |
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What is the behavioral bliss point/ unrestricted baseline |
The preferred distribution of an organisms activities before an instrumental conditioning procedure is introduced that sets constraints and limitations on response allocation
-the relative frequently of occurrence of all the responses of an organism in an unconstrained situation
-cant always be returned
-bliss point provides motivation for instrumental behavior |
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Minimum deviation model |
When we can't get back to bliss point the rate of one response is brought as close as possible to its preferred level without moving the other response too far away from its preferred level |
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When does reinforcement effect happen |
When there is an increase in the rate of the instrumental response above the level of that behavior in the absences of the response reinforcer contingency |
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How effective an instrumental conditioning procedure is depends on |
What alternative sources of reinforcement are available
How those other reinforcers are related to the particular reinforcer involved in the instrumental contingency
The costs of obtaining those other alternativesl reinforcers |
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What is behavioral economics |
The study of allocation of behavior within a system of constraint
Price= number of responses performed or time spent |
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What is demand curve |
The relation between how much of a commodity is purchased and the price of the commodity |
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Elasticity of demand |
The degree to which price influences the consumption or purchase of a commodity
High elasticity (consumption is easily influenced by price)
Low elasticity (price do not influence consumption) |
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Factors that influence elasticity of demand |
Availability of substitutes Price range Income level Link to complementary commodities |
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Availability of substitutes |
If there is a large number of substitutes the original item will be more sensitive to high prices
-greater elasticity and sensitivity in open economics (obtain food after experimental session) than closed economics (get all food during experimental session) |
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Price range |
Price increases have less of an effect at low prices than at high prices
-lower prices increasing the price may not have an effect on consumption
-higher prices increasing the price may have a large impact on consumption |
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Income level |
The higher an individuals income the less deterred they are by increases in prices
Income= the number of responses or the amount of time available for responding |
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Link to complementary commodity |
Price sensitivity is influenced by the link of a reinforcer to a complementary commodity (Change price of 1 thing impacts the consumption of other products) |
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What are the contributions of behavioural economics and response allocation |
1) moved away from looking at reinforcers as special types of stimuli or responses
2) instrumental conditioning is seen as creating a new distribution of responses rather than producers that strengthen an instrumental behavior
3) established that when examining instrumental behavior you have to consider all of an organisms response options |
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Methods used to determine if behavior has come under control of certian stimuli |
1) Differential responding and stimulus discrimination 2) stimulus generalization |
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Differential responding |
Determine whether an instrumental response has come under the control of a particular stimulus by demonstration that there are variations in responding to various stimulin |
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Stimulus discrimination |
If an organism responses differently to two or more stimuli |
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Stimulus generalization |
An organism is said to shoe stimulus generalization if it responds in a similar manner to two or more more stimuli |
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Stimulus generalization gradient |
A gradient of responding as a function of how similar test stimulus is to the original training stimulus Indicated how sensitive behavior is to variations in a particular aspect of the environment Provides a measure of the degree of stimulus control -steep (high degree of stimulus control) -flat (little stimulus control) |
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What determines which of the many features of a stimulus situation gains control over instrumental behavior |
1) sensory capacity and orientation 2) relative ease of conditioning various stimuli 3) type of reinforcement 4) stimulus elements vs configuration cues in compound stimulus |
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Sensory capacity and orientation |
Stimuli that an organism cannot detect will not control their behavior
-stimuli that can control behavior is determined by thr organisms sensory world which are determined by its sensory capacity
-is also influenced by whether organisms come into contact with the stimulus (orientation) |
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Relative ease of conditioning various stimuli |
Degree to which an organism will learn about one particular stimulus will be influenced by how easily other cues in the situation an become conditioned -more intense stimuli have been shown to overshadow conditioning of weaker stimuli |
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What is overshadowing |
Interference with the conditioning of a stimulus because of the simultaneous presence of another stimulus that is easier to condition |
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Type of reinforcement |
Specific types of stimuli are more likely to gain control over the instrumental response with positive reinforcement than negative reinforcement |
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Stimulus element approach |
Assumes that participants respond to a compound stimulus in terms of the stimulus elements that make up the compound -quaplity location effect |
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Quality location effect |
Quality and location of auditory stimuli are seen as separate features of the auditory stimuli |
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Configural cue approach |
Assumes that organisms respond to a compound stimulus as an integral whole rather than a collection of separate and independent stimulus elements |
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Learning factors in stimulus control |
1) stimulus discrimination training 2) interactions between S+ and S- (peak shift) 3) stimulus equivalence training |
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Stimulus discrimination training |
Control through discrete stimuli
S(d) (+) -reinforecment for response S(^) (-) - no reinforcement
Once stimuli have gained control of behavior they are referred to as discriminative stimuli |
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Effects of Stimulus discrimination |
Need to determine the steepness of the generalization gradient when test with other stimuli that differ systematically from S+ |
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Wat are two important principles from the Jenkins and Harrison experiment |
1) discrimination training increases the stimulus control of instrumental behavior
2) a particular dimension is most likely to gain control responding if the S+ and S- differ along the same dimension |
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Discriminative stimuli |
-procedure often used to evaluate sensory capacity of an organisms
-important tool for investigating how aminals process information
-can be used to bring behavior under the control of a wide variety of stimuli |
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Interoceptive cues |
Internal sensations produced by physiological manipulation or drugs |
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Compound or configural cues |
Arise from the combination of two or more stimuli presented at thr same time |
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Spences theory |
We learn about the S+ and S-
-cinditioning of excitatory response tendencies towards S+ reinforce the response in thr presence of the S+
-conditioning of inhibitory response tendencies towards S- reinforce the response in the presence of the S- |
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Spences theory and generalization gradient |
Excitatory stimulus generalization gradient -steep gradient with the most responding of the S+ -happens if an excitatory tendency has become conditioned to S+
Inhibitory stimulus generalization gradient -gradient with least amount of responding to the S- -happens if an Inhibitory tendency has become conditioned to the S- |
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Peak shift (interactions between S+ and S-) |
We can't assume that what is learned about the S+ is independent of what is learned about the S- -influence each other - can be related if S+ and S- differ on one feature |
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Intradimensional discrimination |
Training procedure where S+ and S- only differ on 1 stimulus feature -lead to interaction between S+ and S- performance |
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What are peak shifts |
The shift of the generalization gradient away from the original S+ -greater shift the closer the S+ and - are
The result of intradimrnsional discrimination training as it doesn't happen in the control group |
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Explanations of peak shift: Spence's Explanation |
Suggested that inhibitory and excitatory gradients may produce peak shift
There is an overlap because S+ and S- are similar to each other - S- will supress responding to S+ resulting in the peak shift |
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Stimulus equivalence training |
Leads to generalized responding because stimuli are treated in the same manner -can be achieved many ways (common response training, linking distinct cues) |
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Common response training |
Reinforcing the same response in the presence of various stimuli |
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Linking distinct cues with a common third stimulus (common outcome training) |
Pairing different stimuli with the same outcome leads to functional equivalence among those stimuli so that a response conditioned to one stimulus generalized to others |
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3 mathematical properties needed for an equivalence class to exist |
1) reflexitivity or sameness (all represent the same thing) 2) symmetry (bidirectional) -say word but also be able to pick it out and vise versa 3) transivitiy (integration of the first two) -learn the word apple refers to the picture, picture refers to real apple, identify the real apple when given the word |
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Contextual cues and learned behavior |
Learned behavior cam also become controlled by contextual cues Are present in thr background while an organism is involved in an instrumental conditioning procedure |
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Contextual cues as a signal for US |
Contextual cues can come to control beahvior if thry serve as a signal for a US or a reinforcer |
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Contextual cues and reinforcement |
Contextual cues can even come to control behavior when they don't signal reinforcement |
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What is a binary relationship |
Relations between two events |
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What is a modulator |
A stimulus that signals the relation between two other events (binary relation) |
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Conditional relation |
A relation in which the significance of one stimulus or event depends on the status of another -the relation of a modulator to the binary relation that it signals
S+ and S- are also modulators that indicate the relation between the response and the reinforcer There can also be these relationships in classical conditioning between the CS and US |
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Facilitation (modulator can be called a facilitator) |
A procedure in which one cue designates when another cue will be reinforced -modulator facilities responding to CS |
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Modulator called an occasion setter |
Conditional control also referred to as occasion setting because modulator sets the occasion for pairings of the CS with the US |
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What is extinction |
Reduction of a learned response that occurs because the CS is no longer paired with the US (classical) Reduction of an instrumental response that occurs because the response is no longer followed by the rienforer (operant) |
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Results of extinction |
Conditioned responding decreases Has been viewed as the opposite of acquisition (incorrect) Learning somthing new that is superimposed on what was learned earlier (no loss of earlier learning) |
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What are the behavior effects of extinction |
1) responding decreases -measure rate of probability of instrumental response 2) increases response variability |
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What are the emotional effects of extinction |
Frustration (an aversive emotional reaction that results from the unexpected absence of reinforcement) -can lead to agressive reations |
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The idea that extinction does not remove original learning is based on |
Spontaneous recovery Renewal Reinstatement Resurgence of conditioned behavior (Conditions can lead to recovery of extinguished response) |
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Spontaneous recovery |
Conditioned response returns after a delay following the extinction procedure -not complete recovery Happens after extinction of an instrumental response if an organism is tested after a delay period |
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Renewal |
Recovery of excitatory responding to an extinguished stimulus produced by a shift away from the contextual cues that were present during extinction -can shift to context that was present during acquisition -a context that is neutral |
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Renewal and behavioral therapy |
If extinguish fear to stimuli in one context the fear may still be present in another context -can be reduced by extinguishing in a variety of contexts |
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Rewnal |
Appears to happen because the memory of extinction is specific to thr cues that were present during the extinction phase Assumes that original acquisition performance generalizes from one context to another more readily than does extinction performance -if we develop fear in one environment the dear will be present in others |
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Reinstatement |
Recovery of excitatory responding to an extinguished stimulus produced by exposures to the US |
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Reinstatement and behavioral theory |
If go through extinction procedure during therapy, thr conditioned behavior can return if experience US again |
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Resurgence |
The reappearance of an extinguished target response when another reinforced response is extinguished -experience with one response may influence how often they do another response |
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Ways to enhance extinction |
Number and spacing of extinction trials Immediate vs delayed extinction Repetition of extinction Conducting extinction in mutiple contexts Presenting extinction reminder cues Compound extinction stimuli Priming extinction to update memory for reconciliation |
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Number and spacing of extinction trials |
Increase the number of extinction trials
Spacing trials closer together may increase the effectiveness (more rapid decrease in responding within a session) |
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Immediate vs delayed extinction |
Based on memory consolidation
Introducing extinction before the memory of acquisition has been fully consolidated may change the memory and enhance extinction performance After acquisition (more rapid loss of conditioned behavior) -more susceptible to spontaneous recovery and renewal With delay (more long lasting loss of conditioned behavior if extinction happens 24 hours after) |
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What is memory consolidation |
The establishment of a memory in relatively permanent form or the transfer of information from an active or short term state to am inactive or long term state |
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Repetition of extinction |
Can be achieved by repeating the extinction/ test cycle Less spontaneous recovery with each successive period of rest and testing -suggests that periodically re experiencing exposure therapy my be beneficial |
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Conditioning extinction in multiple contexts |
Reduce the renewal effect Extinguishing behavior in a variety of contexts -increases stimulus generalization of extinction performance depending on number of trials |
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Presenting extinction reminder cues |
Introduce retrieval cues for extinction during test of recovery of extinguished behavior -counteract relapse from training not be generalized in a new context Counteract the effects of spontaneous recovery by providing cues that were available during extinction -extinction can be restored by introducing contextual cues that reactivate the memory of extinction Reduce renewal effects |
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Compound extinction stimuli |
Resent Teo stimuli simultaneously that are both being extinguished -enhance extinction of both cues |
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Priming extinction |
Presenting a CS can activate the memory of acquisition of a conditioned response Once activated this memory is in a modifiable state that can be changed before it is recosolidated |
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What is the reconsolidation window |
Time during which a memory that has been activated can be changed -less than 6 hours |
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What leads to the reduction in responding in extinction procedures |
Inhibitory S-R association |
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Inhibitory S-R associations |
Suggested that nonrienforement results in an inhibitory S-R association because organism is not reinforced for R whenever S is present -non reinforcement after history of reinforcement (no history= no emotional reactiom) -lead to frustration which plays an important role in behavior decline (un conditioned aversive frustration)
Responding is suppressed whenever specific stimuli are present |
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Paradoxical reward effects |
Overtraining extinction effect Magnitude reinforcement extinction effect Partial reinforcement extinction effect |
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Overtraining extinction effect |
Less persistence of instrumental behavior in extinction following extensive training with reinforcement than following moderate levels of reinforcement
Less responding during extinction after more extensive training |
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Magnitude reinforcement extinction effect |
Less persistence of instrumental behavior in extinction following training with a large reinforcer than following a small reinforcer -experience more frustration |
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Partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE) |
Greater persistence in instrumental responding in extinction after partial reinforcement training than after continuous reinforcement -leds extinction and frustration |
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Mechanisms of PREE |
1) discrimination hypothesis 2) frustration theory 3) sequential theory |
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Discrimination hypothesis |
Extinction is slower after partial reinforcement than continuous reinforcement because the Onset of extinction is more difficult to detect partial reinforcement |
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Frustration theory |
Extinction is retarded after partial reinforcement because the response becomes conditioned to the anticipation of frustration nonreward
Persistence to Extinction is a result of learning to continue responding when expect to be nonrienforced or frustrated
Rewarded trials (expect reinforcement) Nonrewarded trials (expect absence) Long intertrail intervals |
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Sequential theory |
Assumes that we can remember whether reinforced for performing instrumental response in recent past
Memory of nonreward becomes a cue for performing the response and results in persistence in extinction -learns to respond when it remembers not being reinforced on a previous trial which leads to persistence during extinction Short intertrial intervals |
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Behavioral momentum and resistance to change |
Can view persistence of responding during extinction as resistance to the change in reinforcement contingencies that take place when the extinction phase begins |
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Behavioral momentum |
The susceptibility of responding to disruption by manipulations or a change in the schedule of reinforcement -will be difficult to disruption
Examined by introducing multiple schedules of reinforcement Greater reinforcement= more momentum |
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Behavioral momentum and reinforcement |
Seems to determined by reinforcement rate and not response rate |
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The partial reinforcement extinction effect |
Challenges this assumption Greater resistance to Extinction (less susceptibility to disruption) when we have lower rate of reinforcement |
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What is avoidance |
Minimizing aversive stimulation -increases behavior - negative contingency between aversive stimulus and response -active avoidance (taking action prevents aversive stimulus) |
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What is punishment |
Making a particular response causes the aversive stimulus to happen -deacreases behavior -postive contingency between aversive stimulus and response -passive avoidance (refraining from action prevents aversive stimulus) |
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Discriminated avoidance procedure (signaled avoidance procedure |
Used to examine the importance of warning stimuli in avoidance (instrumental response relationship) Procedure in which occurrences of thr aversive stimulus are signaled by a conditioned stimulus -responding during CS terminates the CS and delivery of avrtsive US |
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Two kinds of trials in discrimination avoidance procedure |
Avoidance trial -response required for Avoidance is made during CS prior to shock (US) -CS turned off and US doesn't happen
Escape trail -eesponse required for Avoidance not made during CS-US interval -shock (US) presented until response happens |
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Two process theory of Avoidance |
1) classical conditioning of fear to the CS -paring of warning stimulus (CS) and aversive event (US) causes CS to elicit fear -fear is a source of motivation for Avoidance (negative reinforcement)
2) instrumental reinforcement of the avoidance response through fear reduction - negative reinforcement for instrumental response by termination of aversive event -termination of CS leads to fear reduction |
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Acquired-drive experiments |
Drive to perform Instrumental response is learned through classical conditioning
assumes that classical conditioning and Instrumental reinforcement make separate contributionsl to avoidance learning to show both are needed |
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Independent measurement of fear during acquisition of avoidance behavior |
Avoidance behavior has been investigated using independent measures of the instrumental response and fear
Conditioning of fear and the Conditioning of instrumental Avoidance behavior should be corrected (not always true as we become less fearful due to our ability to responsed) -fear declines but never completely
If fear is elicited by a warning signal in an avoidance procedure them suppression of a reinforced behavior should occur in a conditioned suppression procedure with the presentation of the warning stimulus |
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Extinction of avoidance behavior through response blocking and CS alone exposure |
Avoidance behavior can happen for a long time if the Avoidance response terminates the CS and shocks are prevented -difficult to extinguish Avoidance behavior |
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Flooding |
Extinction procedure for Avoidance behavior -present CS and no US, can't make response |
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2 important components of flooding |
1) exposure to CS without aversive stimulus -
2) blocking access to avoidance response -facilitates extinction |
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Free operant avoidance (nondiscriminated) |
Without warning averisve stimulus
Make avoidance response and reicive safety period
If reapeat avoidance response before end of safety period the safety period resets
Timing can act as a CS (warning signal) leading to negative reinforcement
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Two intervals in free operant avoidance |
S-S (shock-shock) interval -interval between shocks when response not made -short intervals leads to increased likelihood of learning avoidance response (faster responding)
R-S (response-shock) interval -interval between the avoidance response and next scheduled shock (safety period) -longer safety peiord the more likely to learn it faster (faster responding) -must be longer than S-S interval -greatest fear closer to the end |
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Alternatives to the two process theory |
1) postive reinforcement through conditioned inhibition of fear 2) reinforcement of avoidance though reduction of shock frequency 3) avoidance and species specific defense reactions 4) predatory imminence and defensive and recuperative behaviors |
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postive reinforcement through conditioned inhibition of fear |
Contained safety signals
Avoidance behavior creates safety periods
Feedback stimuli associated with the response can become conditioned inhibitors (signal absence of stimulation that is aversive) |
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Safety signal hypothesis |
Avoidance behavior may be positively reinforced by thr safety signals that happen with Avoidance behavior -used to explain free operant avoidance |
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reinforcement of avoidance though reduction of shock frequency |
reinforcement of avoidance behavior occurs through shock frequency
Suggests that shock reduction is not necessary for avoidance learning to happen |
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Shock frequency reduction hypothesis |
Reduction of shocks is thr utmost importance in the reinforcement of avoidance behavior |
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avoidance and species specific defense reactions (SSDRs) |
In nature environment it is important for Avoidance behavior to develop quickly to be effective
Assums thar aversive situations and events elicit unconditioned innate responses
Certain behaviors more readily learned in Avoidance procedure that others |
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predatory imminence and defensive and recuperative behaviors |
Also focuses on evolutionary and ecological factors Different SSDRs occurr in the face of different degrees of predatory imminence Different SSDRs occurr in the face of different degrees of predatory imminence Defensive behavior initially occurs as unconditioned responding |
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Predatory imminence hypothesis |
Defensive behaviors can with time be elicited by a CS if the CS is associated with an aversion event
The defense response thar happens will depend in timing of the CS in relation to the US (aversive)
-if CS before US (resposne will be one lower on the predator imminence scale than US)
-if CS happens simultaneously with US (response will be similar to US)
No operant conditioning element |
