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184 Cards in this Set
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Hypothesis |
The notion that the research is designed to test (ex: prenatal exposure to ethanol results in spatial learning deficits). An educated guess on what you think your results will look like. |
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Independent Variable (IV) |
The difference that is directly created or arranged by the experimentor. The experimentor manipulates the independent variable/ "handles" that part of the study. The variable manipulated by the researcher. (ex: the difference in rat diets) |
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Dependent Variable (DV) |
"Depends" on the independent variable, the results of the idependent variable. The variable measured by the researcher, operationalized. The measure of the particular behavior being studied (ex: latency of the rats). |
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Operational Definition |
The definition of some psychological characteristic in terms of the way it is measured (ex: IQ test is the operational definition definition of intelligence). An operational definition is a result of the process of operationalization and is used to define something (e.g. a variable, term, or object) in terms of a process (or set of validation tests) needed to determine its existence, duration, and quantity. |
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Random Assignment |
Equal chance of any group assignment. Eliminates bias, and unwanted variables (ex: rats began swimming test at random places in the pool). |
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"Blind" Studies |
If the participants in research did not know details, such as what group they were in or what the independent variable was, they were said to be "blind". |
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Blind Experimentors |
Used to indicate that the experimentors who actually worked with the participants did not know the group assignment of any particular participant. (ex: experimentors in the rat study didnt know which rats were the alcohol rats vs. normal rats.) |
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Double Blind |
Neither participants nor researchers have knowledge that would allow them to react differently to the independent variable (ex: subjects do not know if they were given a placebo and neither do the experimentors) |
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Single Blind |
Researchers know, participants of the research do not. |
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Control Group |
The group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do. (ex: could be a placebo, or in the rat experiment it could be the rats with a regular diet) |
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"Yoked" |
The behavior of one participant determines what happens to another participant (ex: how much the rats ate). |
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Cause and Effect |
Even in an experiment, conclusions about cause and effect should be made with caution. There may be a relationship, but not cause. |
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What is Psychology? |
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behavior in a given context. |
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Hasler & Wisby 1951 Salmon Migration Experiment |
-Tag Salmon -Olfactory Hypothesis -Salmon can smell -Salmon use this smell to migrate back to their home stream, mate and die. -Conclusion of Imprinting: young salmon imprint on the unique smell of their home stream -example of scientific method |
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Scientific Method: |
A method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
-Formulate Hypothesis: Likely and reasonable, testable, preliminary evaluation/choice of hypothesis to test.
-Hypothesis Testing: A prediction about the relationship between variables. Can be supported/refuted by observation and/or experimentation.
-Collect Evidence: >NO: Abandon or modify hypothesis, collect more data. >YES: Scrutinize data and methods, look for alternative explanation, compare with other data and experiments, replicate study.
1. Question 2. Hypothesis 3. Experiment 4. Observation 5. Data Analysis 6. Conclusion 7. Publishing 8. Peer Reveiw 9. Replication 10. Falsification
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Experimental Design |
A method of research in the social sciences (such as sociology or psychology) in which a controlled experimental factor is subjected to special treatment for purposes of comparison with a factor kept constant. |
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Theory |
A well substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypothesis. Must have good evidence. Not the same as a fact or proof. |
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Sigmund Freud |
-Founder of psychoanalysis -Many of his core ideas have been rejected -Cocaine user -"Pressure" technique -Believed we had unconscious reasons for feelings and actions. -UNfalsifiable |
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Hysteria |
A group of presumably psychogenic disorders that included a wide variety of physical and mental symptoms. (ex: glove anethesia) |
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Psychogenic Symptoms |
Symptoms believed to result from some psychological cause rather than from tissue damage (ex: glove anesthesia) |
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Free Association (Freud) |
Used by Freud to discover surpressed memories of hysteria patients. A method used in psychoanalytic therapy in which the patient is to say anything that comes to his/her mind, no matter how apparently trivial, unrelated, or embarassing. (ex: Pressure technique)
There is no way of measuring this, Freud simply makes false conclusions. |
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Repression (Freud) |
In psychoanalytic theory, a mechanism of defense by means of which thoughts, impulses, or memories that give rise to anxiety are pushed out of consciousness.
How can we prove/disprove what is in the unconscious? We can't. |
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Psychoanalysis (Freud) |
A theory of human personality development formulated by Freud, based on assertions about unconscious conflict and early psychosexual development, also the method of therapy that draws heavily on this theory. |
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"Id" (Freud) |
In Freuds theory, a term for the most primitive reactions of human personality, consisting of blind striving for immediate biological satisfaction regardless of cost and society's rules. |
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"Ego" (Freud) |
In Freud's theory, a set of reactions that try to reconcile the Id's blind pleasure strivings with the demands of reality. The "mediator." |
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"Superego" (Freud) |
In Frued's theory, reaction patterns that emerge from within the ego, represent the internalized rules of society, and come to control the ego by punishment with guilt. "An internalized code of conduct." |
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Defense Mechanism (Freud) |
A collective term for a number of reactions that try to ward off or lessen anxiety by various unconscious means. (ex: displacement, reaction formation, rationalization, projection, etc.) |
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Observational Studies |
Unobtrusively watch behavior. Typically descriptive, not explanatory or predictive. |
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Threats to a study's validity: |
-Random Sampling (DV) -Random Assignment (IV) -IV is the only difference in the experiment -Placebo -Data -Keeping all variables constant except the IV |
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Correlational Studies |
Two variables that affect each other (ex: partying and GPA)
Dependent variables exist in correlation, but there is only an independent variable if you have to manipulate something.
Correlation DOES NOT EQUAL Causation. Correlational studies can suggest a relationship exists between variables. However, it cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another. If there are no associations between the variables tested, then there are no causal connections between them.
If two variables change together in the same direction, such as height and weight (taller people tend to be heavier, on average, and vice versa), we say that the variables are positively correlated. If two variables change together in the opposite direction, such as alcohol intake and driving ability (the more alcohol one drinks, the less one is able to drive well, on average, and vice versa), we say that the variables are negatively correlated. |
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Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud) |
The sequence of four developmental stages from infancy through the attainment of adult sexuality that are considered universal is psychoanalytic theory. 2. The Anal Stage 3. The Phallic Stage 4 (The Latent Stage) 5. The Genital Stage
"orangutans always play with little gorillas" |
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Penis Envy (Freud) |
In psychoanalytic theory, the wish for a penis that is assumed to ensue normally in females as part of the electra complex. (sexist) |
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Latent Content (Freud) |
The actual wishes/concerns the dream was meant to express. |
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Manifest Content (Freud) |
Dreams in disguise using defense mechanisms. |
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Archetypes (Carl Jung) |
According to Carl Jung, the stories and images that constitute our collective unconscious. |
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Collective Unconscious (Carl Jung) (Jugian Psychology) |
A set of primordial stories and images, hypothesized by Carl Jung to be shared by all of humanity, and which he proposed underlie and shape our perceptions and desires. The part of the unconscious mind that is derived from ancestral memory and experience and is common to all humankind, as distinct from the individual's unconscious. |
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Carl Jung |
Carl Gustav Jung, often referred to as C. G. Jung, was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist who founded analytical psychology (Jungian Psychology). Jung proposed and developed the concepts of extraversion and introversion; archetypes, and the collective unconscious. |
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"Ego" psychology (Freud) |
A school of psychodynamic thought that emphasizes the skills and adaptive capacities of the ego. |
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Directionality and Third Variable problems (In Correlational Studies) |
http://sccpsy101.com/home/chapter-3/section-3/
Although there may seem to be a direction of correlation between two variables, a third lurking variable may also be having an effect in the correlation.
1. The directionality problem: This refers to the possibility that Variable A is causing changes in Variable B, or that Variable B is causing changes in Variable A |
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Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud) 1: The Oral Stage (birth - 18 months) |
Breastfeeding = automatic gratification
Theme: dependency
Conflict: weaning >too early = too independent as an adult >too late = too dependent/entitled as an adult
Fixation: Oral activities as an adult. |
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Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud) 2: The Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years) |
Toilet training = development of ego, you don't get immediate gratification.
Theme: Control, self control, obedience
Conflict: toilet training >too tough = anal retentive (control freak) >too easy = anal explusive (careless)
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Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud) 3: The Phallic Stage (3-5 years) |
Notice that boys and girls are different, pleasure genitals
Fixation: males > excessive masculinity females > need for attention, domination
Oedipus complex / Electra Complex = love for parent of opposite gender, jealousy for the other. |
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Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud) 4: The Latency Stage (4-puberty) |
Sex is repressed, children avoid children of the opposite sex. |
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Stages of Psychosexual Development (Freud) 5: The Genital Stage (puberty and up) |
Maturity Productivity, artistic, scientific creativity... Healthy adults find pelasure in love and work Fixated adults will find their energy tied up in earlier psychosexual stages |
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Falsifiable |
Capable of being tested (verified or falsified) by experiment or observation. It must have the possiblity of being proven wrong.
Ex: all men are mortal > not falsifiable (cannot be proven wrong) unless everyone is dead
all men are immortal > falsifiable, because we know men die
A theory/preposition isnt scientific if it can't be proven false.
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Why Freud isnt falsifiable... |
"Unconscious" is not falsifiable, and therefore not scientific. You cannot prove Freud wrong or right when dealing with the unconscious, so we are outside the realm of science. (ex: astrology/horoscopes)
1. Freud is not falsifiable 2. He makes complicated theories from basically no scientific evidence 3. Sexist 4. Small case studies, only had evidence from a few patients. 5. Most of his patients were women.
NO studies have found a link between weaning/dependency, or toilet training/obsessiveness |
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Brain regions: |
Cerebral cortex: controls planning, abstract thinking, and impulse
Parietal lobes: spatial layout
Temporal lobes: interpret sounds
Occipital lobes: interpret visual information, colors, motion, and shapes |
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Rene Descartes |
Philosopher and mathematician, argued that much of human behavior can be understood in mechanical terms (the brain). Descartes philosophy placed a heavy emphasis on deductive reasoning and mathematics. He developed new tools (analytic geometry and the Cartesian coordinate system) which greatly enhanced the ability of scientists to use mathematics to model the physical world; reinforcing the definition of science as the study of measurable quantities. Perhaps his greatest influence on science, and on our culture, came from his 'dualistic' model of reality. Descartes proposed that reality consists of two separate realms: a physical realm and a mental realm. |
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Neuron |
A specialized cell in the nervous system that accumulates and transmits information. A specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell. |
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Dendrites |
The branched part of a neuron that receives impulses and conducts them toward the cell body. A short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body. |
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Cell Body |
The portion of the nueron that contains the metabolic machinery that keeps the cell alive and functional (also known as the soma). |
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Axon |
The part of a nueron that transmits impulses to glands, muscles, and other neurons. The long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells. |
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Efferent Neurons |
Nerves that carry messages outward from the central nervous system. Efferent Neurons carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles or glands. |
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Afferent Neurons |
Nerves that carry messages inward toward the central nervous system. Afferent neurons carry nerve impulses from receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system. |
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Interneurons |
Neurons that are neither afferent not efferent, but instead carry information from one neuron to another. "Local" connections. |
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Projection Neurons |
Link one area of the central nervous system to some other (perhaps distant) area, typically nerves that do this have long axons. |
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Glia |
A type of cell in the nervous system long believed to provide a "support" from neurons, recent research indicates that glia provide many other functions as well. Glial cells are non-neural cells that perform "housekeeper" functions such as clearing out debris and excess materials. Glial cells support neurons by providing support and nutrition. |
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Myelin |
A fatty substance that makes up some types of glial cells; these cells wrap around the axon of some neurons, providing an insulating "myelin sheath" around these neurons. |
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Action Potential |
A breif change in the electrical charge of a neuronal membrane; the physical basis of the signal that travels the length of the neuron. Momentary change in the voltage of a neuron. The nerve impulse activated in a neuron that travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released into a synapse.
When an impulse is sent out from a cell body, the sodium channels open and the positive sodium cells surge into the cell. Once the cell reaches a certain threshold, an action potential will fire, sending the electrical signal down the axon. Action potentials either happen or they don't; there is no such thing as a "partial" firing of a neuron. This principle is known as the all-or-none law.
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Resting Potential |
The voltage difference between the inside and the outside of a neuronal membrane when the neuron is not firing. The resting potential of the neuron refers to the difference between the voltage inside and outside the neuron. The resting potential of the average neuron is around -70 millivolts, indicating that the inside of the cell is 70 millivolts less than the outside of the cell. The outside of the cell is more positive than the inside of the cell. |
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Excitation Threshold |
The voltage difference between a neurons interior and exterior that, if exceeded, causes the neuron to fire.
Neurons have different excitation thresholds. A weak stimulus stimulates only neurons with relatively low thresholds, etc.
The threshold potential is the critical level to which the membrane potential must be depolarized in order to initiate an action potential. |
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Refractory period |
The time after an action potential during which a neuron's cell membrane is unprepared for the next action potential. After the neuron has fired, there is a refractory period in which another action potential is not possible. During this time, the potassium channels reopen and the sodium channels close, gradually returning the neuron to its resting potential. |
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Ions |
Molecules that have a positive/negative charge. Ions tend to move from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration. Elements with an electrical charge. |
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Depolarize |
In the nervous system, to lose charge that normally exists across the neuronal membrane. |
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Propagation (sending a signal down the axon) |
The spread of the action potential down an axon, caused by sucessive changes in electrical charge along the length of the axon's membrane. |
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All-or-none Law |
The law that all action potentials have the same strength and speed regardless of the triggering stimulus. A neuron either fires or it doesnt. There is no in between. More intense stimuli will excite greater numbers of nuerons, not cause a single neuron to fire "more".
Neurons have different excitation thresholds. A weak stimulus stimulates only neurons with relatively low thresholds, etc.
Action potentials either happen or they don't; there is no such thing as a "partial" firing of a neuron. This principle is known as the all-or-none law. |
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Synapse |
The small gap between two adjacent neurons, consisting of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons membranes between them. Although it slows communication slightly, a single neuron can collect information from multiple sources. A junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter. |
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Presynaptic Neuron |
The cell that send the signal/message. "Before synapses" |
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Postsynaptic Neuron |
The cell that receives the signal/message. "After synapses" |
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Neurotransmitters (travel across the synapse) |
Chemicals released by one neuron (usually the presynaptic neuron) which trigger a response in another neuron (usually the postsynaptic neuron). This is the cheif means of communication between neurons. A chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure. |
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Agonist |
Drugs that promote neurotransmission in a variety of ways. |
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Antagonist |
Drugs that block the release of neurotransmitters. |
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Synaptic Reuptake |
The presynaptic neuron's process of reabsorbing its own neurotransmitters after signaling so that they can be released again the next time the neuron fires. Neurotransmitters are reused. The reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by a neurotransmitter transporter of a pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. |
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Blood-brain Barrier |
Specialized membranes that surround the blood vessels within the brain and filter harmful chemicals out of the brain's blood supply. |
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B.F Skinner (Behaviorism, Operant Conditioning) |
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. Wanted to analyze behavior in order to make society better. The father of operant conditioning. |
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Nurture > Nature (B.F Skinner) |
Scholarly and popular discussion about nature and nurture relates to the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature" in the sense of nativism orinnatism, what you are born with) as compared to an individual's personal experiences ("nurture" in the sense of empiricism or behaviorism, what you learn) in causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits. Skinner believed nurture was greater than nature.
Traditional Idea: Intelligence/criminality were inherited. This theory built bad stereotypes.
Watson: "...train infants to be specialists" nurture can determine anything, race doesnt matter.
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Antimentalism (B.F Skinner) |
Desires, wishes, emotions, beliefs = unscientific, with no way of measurement. Unfalsifiable.
Stimulus->response, reinforcement->punishment = scientific
Human psychology can be explained without referring to wishes, desires, etc = Behaviorism, opposite of cognitive psychology. |
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Applicability (B.F Skinner) |
Laws of learning are applicable across all species and modalities.
Lots of rats and pigeon studies, because they are apllicable almost exactly to humans.
Can teach animal to do almost anything a human can (as long as they have the necessary physiology).
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Habituation |
Repeated exposure to stimulus = decrease in response (ex: rat hears loud noise w/o an effect, so eventually he will ignore the sound). The diminishing of a physiological or emotional response to a frequently repeated stimulus. |
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Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) |
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
1. Food (UCS) -> Salivation (UCR) (unconditioned because its not taught, it's natural.)
2. Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) -> Salivation (UCR) After multiple times of association with food, the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus.
3.Bell (CS) -> Salivation (CR) |
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Little Albert Experiment (Watson & Rayner) |
-Interested in using Pavlov's ideas of classical conditioning -Child was conditioned to fear a white rat -Stimulus Generalization
* Neutral Stimulus: The white rat
While the experiment is one of psychology's most famous and is included in nearly every introductory psychology course, it has also been criticized widely for several reasons. First, the experimental design and process was not carefully constructed. Watson and Rayner did not develop an object means to evaluate Albert's reactions, instead relying on their own subjective interpretations. Secondly, the experiment also raises many ethical concerns. The Little Albert experiment could not be conducted by today's standards because it would be unethical.
-Conditioned to fear white rat and similar stimuli -Fear can be conditioned -Only one child -Where does "generalization" of objects cut off? -Blocks = comfort, not a good control item -Conditions and variables are not very constant
1. Loud Noise (UCS) -> Fear (UCR)
2. White Rat (CS) + Loud Noise (UCS) -> Fear (UCR)
3. White Rat (CS) -> Fear (CR) |
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Phobias (Classical Conditioning & You) |
Extinction/Systematic Desensitazation - slowly building up confidence against fear, to estinguish the relationship between the CS and CR. |
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Thorndike's Law of Effect |
The law of effect was published by Edward Thorndike in 1905 and states that “responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. |
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Operant Conditioning |
A type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its predecessor and consequences. Future behavior is changed by consequences of past behavior. |
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Shaping (Operant Conditioning) |
Reinforcement of successive approximations of desired behavior. The shaping method relies on the use of behavioral reinforcement and punishment, which lead subjects toward a desired behavior, and discourage them from displaying undesired behaviors. Skinner's early experiments in operant conditioning involved the shaping of rats to learn to press a lever to receive a food reward. |
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Amplitude |
The "height" of a wave. |
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Frequency |
How many times per second the wave reaches its maximum amplitude. |
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Wavelength |
The distance between the crests of two successive waves. Measured in nanometers. Major determinant of perceived color. |
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Visible Spectrum |
Between 750-360 nanometers. Different wavelengths of light produce different colors (ex: 400 nanometers = violet) |
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Photoreceptor |
A light-sensitive cell located on the retina that converts light energy into neural impulses. A layer of tissue lining the back of the eyeball. A structure in a living organism, especially a sensory cell or sense organ, that responds to light falling on it. (rods and cones) |
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Retinal Image |
The image of an object that is projected on the retina. It's size increases with the size of the object and decreases with the object's distance from the eye. |
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Iris |
A smooth, circular muscle surrounding the pupillary opening. |
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Pupillary Opening |
The opening from which light enters the eye. Dialate = more light is let in. Contract = less light is let in.
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Cornea and Lens |
The cornea is the transparent layer forming the front of the eye. It focuses incoming light like a camera lens. Cornea bends light rays. |
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Retina - 3 main layers... |
1. Rods and cones/photoreceptors
2. Bipolar cells ( Bipolar cells are so-named as they have a central body from which two sets of processes arise. They can synapse with either rods or cones (but not both), and they also accept synapses from horizontal cells.)
3. Ganglion cells - axons make up the optic nerve
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RODS VS. CONES |
Rods and Cones are the two types of photoreceptors in the visual system.
RODS -photoreceptors in the retina that respond to lower light intensities and give rise to achromatic (colorless) sensations -absent in fovea, plentiful at retinas edges -receptors for night vision
CONES -visual receptors that respond to higher light intensities & give rise to chromatic (color) sensations -plentiful in the fovea, less so on the uter edges of the retina -day vision, better acuity -Contain 3 types of pigments, crucial to cones ability to perceive colors. Sensitive to different hues.
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Fovea |
The area roughly at the retina's center where cones are plentiful and visual acuity is greatest. A small depression in the retina of the eye where visual acuity is highest. The center of the field of vision is focused in this region, where retinal cones are particularly concentrated. |
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Acuity |
Sharpness or keenness of thought, vision, or hearing. The ability to perceive detail. |
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Optic Nerve |
The bundle of fibers that proceeds from each retina to the brain, transmitting impulses to the brain from the retina at the back of the eye. |
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Blind spot |
Region with no photoreceptors, insensitive to light. Axons send info to the thalamus here. |
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Photopigment |
A chemical in the photoreceptors that changes it's form in response to light, producing an electrical change that signals to the nervous system that light is present. Light energy -> electro-chemical language -> nervous system. |
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Rhosopsin |
Photopigment in rods. Breaks down more readily in response to light than cone pigments. Bright vs. Dark. A purplish-red light-sensitive pigment present in the retinas of humans and many other animal groups. |
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Brightness Contrast |
The effect that makes a stimulus look much brighter on a dark background than on a bright one. |
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Edge Enhancement |
Amplifies brightness boundaries, relies on a bright contrast and allows us to see the edges between objects more clearly. (also see lateral inhibition) |
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Lateral Inhibition |
The pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons responses. The activity in one neurons decreases the responses in adjacent neurons. This pattern of interaction leads to edge enhancement In neurobiology, lateral inhibition is the capacity of an excited neuron to reduce the activity of its neighbors. Lateral inhibition disables the spreading of action potentials from excited neurons to neighboring neurons in the lateral direction.
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Hue |
The attribute of a color by virtue of which it is discriminated as red, green, blue, etc. and which is dependent on its dominant wavelength. Independent of intensity or lightness. |
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Trichromatic Color Vision |
The principle underling human color vision. Color vision occurs through the operation of three sets of cones, each maximally sensitive to a different wavelength of light. 3 elements, each tied to one kind of cone. Each contains a different photopigment. |
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Simultaneous Color Contrast |
Complementary colors, the chromatic counterpart of brightness contrast. The manner in which the colors of two different objects affect each other. The effect is more noticeable when shared between objects of complementary color. |
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Additive Color Mixture |
Red+green+blue = white light. All wavelengths are being added together. |
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Continuous Reinforcement |
Evertime you do a certain behavior, it is always reinforced. |
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Scheduled Reinforcement (3 kinds) |
-Ratio (every nth trial) -interval (after every nth time point) -Fixed (constant pattern) vs. Variable ("on average")
You can have combinations.
VARIABLE RATIO is most effective |
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Chaining |
Reinforcing sequential responses to create a complex behavior |
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Why Skinner was Wrong: Scientific Examination of Behaviorism |
-Tolman
-Cognitive Behaviorism: What goes on inside the head does matter (ex: rat with maze map in head, glass lifted, still gets to cheese. Memory is an important part of psychology).
-Rats reinforced partially showed least amount of error because they had already learned maze, and are now given a reward. |
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Why Skinner was Wrong: Chomsky & Cognitive Revolution (Critique of Skinner's verbal behavior) |
Skinner vs. Chomsky...
Skinner -Language is a reinforced behavior -Can generalize to some extent
Chomsky -So what? What does this tell us about language -Explanatory power |
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Major Claims of Behaviorism |
Garcia Effect: Cues and consequences must be related or no learning occurs.
Nurture > Nature -Evidence for innate knowledge -Language
Anti-mentalism -cognitive psychology is invalid -explaining a computer playing chess (you can't)
Applicability to all species >train pigeon to peck for food = easy beak is related to food >train pigeon to flap wings for food = hard, unrelated |
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Legacy of Behaviorism |
-Much better than Freud, but still not 100%. -Identified problems without using introspection (the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes) to study the mind -Learning mechanisms -Applicability to training & animal behavior. |
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Ancient thinking (Brain) ... |
"Localization of function" very basic cognitive subtraction > can an amputee think? > yes > can people without a heart think? > no > Therefore we must think with our hearts! |
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Descartes (1596 - 1650) |
Cartesian Dualism >Seperation of body and mind/soul >Mind/soul nonmateiral, doesnt follow laws of physics >Body is material >Communication via the pineal gland: located near CSF, CSF controls body. Only humans have minds/souls. Only humans have pineal glands. Therefore, pineal gland is mind/body link. |
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19th century thinking (Brain) ... |
-Localization of respiration to the medulla -Localization of sensory and motor functions to the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord respectively.
*If functions could be localized within these structures, perhaps there was also localization of higher functions in the cortex (this leads to Phrenology). |
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Subtractive Color Mixture |
Paint absorbs some of lights wavelenghts, ex: red +green+blue = black paint. |
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Opponent-Process Theory |
A theory of color vision that proposes three pairs of color antagonists (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) Excitation of neurons sensitive to one member of a pair automatically inhibits neurons sensitive to the other member. The human visual system interprets information about color by processing signals from cones and rods in an antagonistic (opponent) manner. |
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Visual Agnosia |
A condition in which a person can see but cannot recognize or interpret visual information, due to a disorder in the parietal lobes. Cannot differentiate shapes |
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Neurons in the visual sysem all have a preferred target... |
Cells/Neurons in the visual sysem all have a preferred target, a certain type of stimulus thats especially effective in causing that cell to fire. Each cell is a "detector" set/tuned for its own set of targets. Visual Systems differ by species (ex: frogs only need to know a few shapes for survival). |
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Receptive Field |
For a particular cell in the visual system, the pattern of retinal stimulation that most effectively causes the cell to fire. For some cells, this pattern is defined simple in terms of retinal location; for others, the most effective input has a particular shape, color, or direction/motion. |
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Feature Detectors |
Nerons in the retina or brain that respond to specific attributes of the stimulus, such as movement, orientation (ex: horizontal line) and so on. |
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Franz Gall & Phrenology |
Cortical Location - Brain is composed of as many organs as mental faculties
Phrenology: Mental organs vary in size; size effects the shape of the skull We can study character by external configuration of the skull Took skulls of people with exceptional faculites, artists, writers, criminals, etc. Brain will get bigger with more "practice" in a certain area, just like a muscle that works out.
PROBLEM: Brain is not a muscle, its an organ. Phrenology skull model is too abstract. "Robot Phrenologist" machine records your skull size and tells you your character, people believed it because it seemed so futuristic.
There is NO relationship between skull and personality. |
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Phrenology |
The detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities. No longer a valid science. |
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Franz Gall (Phrenology) |
Franz Josef Gall was a neuroanatomist, physiologist, and pioneer in the study of the localization of mental functions in the brain. Claimed as the founder of phrenology (proved wrong by Broca). |
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Broca |
Pierre Paul Broca was a French physician, surgeon, anatomist, and anthropologist. He was born in Sainte-Foy-la-Grande, Gironde. He is best known for his research on Broca's area, a region of the frontal lobe that has been named after him. |
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Broca & "Tan Tan" |
Tan was Broca's patient with brain damage. Broca was trying to figure out whats effected by this damage. Speech impediment, good with numbers but not with other responses. Turns out he had a hole in his left brain, which effected his language. This proved Franz Gall was WRONG about the concept of different areas of the brain having different functions. The area was named "Broca's area" of the brain, responsible for synactic comprehension. |
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How neurons fire... |
An action potential is part of the process that occurs during the firing of a neuron. During the action potential, part of the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out. This process causes a rapid increase in the positive charge of the nerve fiber. When the charge reaches +40 mv, the impulse is propagated down the nerve fiber. This electrical impulse is carried down the nerve through a series of action potentials. |
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Membrane Proteins...(Na+,K+,Cl-) |
Ion channels- passageways through the cell for Na+,K+,Cl-. They let ions out (ions are elements with an electrical charge).
>not gated=passive, always open to specific ions, membrane is selectively permeable to K+
>gated=active, opening/closing triggered by certain conditions
Active pumps: Na+/K+ pump for every 3 Na+ OUT/2K+ IN
Concentration Gradient more Na+ outside of cell, more K+ inside cell wants to leave.
Nongated channels selective permeability to K+ (passive) -more K+ moving out than Na+ moving in (More K+ channels) -Electrical gradient (K+ in), more positive charge on the outside than inside
Electrochemical Equilibrium Balance between the two forces -concentration gradient pushing K+ out, electrical gradient pushing K+ in
At equilibrium, there is a resting membrane potential -difference in charge between inside and outside of membrane -70 mV, no net flow of K+ in or out.
Conduction -if electrical currents are introduced into the neuron (either injected or as a signal from other neurons) this changes equillibrum. Charge travels down the neuron - passive and active conduction
*Resting potential of a cell in negative
-outside of cell is more positive, inside is less positive -at terminal end of presynaptic neuron, ca++ ion channels open |
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Passive Conduction |
The axon is a "leaky hole" due to ion channels, not very conductive. The current will travel but not very far. Need a different mechanism for long range communication -> the action potential |
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Active Conduction |
Passive conduction of positive charge -> depolarization of membrane (moves towards 0). If depolarization reaches threshold (-50mV) -> voltage gated Na+ open, Na+ floods in rapid reversal of polarization (+40mV); the action potential. This triggers opening of gates K+ channels, K+ rushes out -> hyperpolarization. (Eventually (Na+ out /K+ in) pump gradients). There is a return to resting potential. |
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Going down the axon... |
-Axon is a leaky hose -Insulated with myelin -Allows passive currents to travel furthur -Nodes of Ranvier (gaps in myelin sheath) saltatory conduction - charge "jumps"
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At the Synapse.. |
Presynaptic membrane- when AP arrives at the axon terminal -> depolarization -Influx of Ca^2+ ions -Vesicles with neurotransmitters fuse to presynaptic membrane
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Excitory Synapses |
An excitatory synapse is a synapse in which an action potential in a presynaptic neuron increases the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell. Neurons form networks through which nerve impulses travel, each neuron often making numerous connections with other cells. (depolarization) |
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Inhibitory Synapses |
An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is a kind of synaptic potential that makes a postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an action potential. (Hyperpolarization of post synaptic cell) |
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From Visual Fields (VF) to the Brain... |
-Light from RVF (right visual field) falls on the left side of each retina & vice versa. -Information from the left side of each retina travels to the left LGN (lateral geniculate nucleus), part of the thalamus, and then to the left hemisphere. Vice Versa for LVF. -At the LGN, RVF information in L LGN, and LVF information is in the R LGN. -Fibers from the R & L side of each retina must travel seperatley.
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Inouye 1904... |
Japanese war in 1904, solider was shot in head, still living, effected his vision, Retinotopic map, cortical magnification. His vision was partially blind from where he was shot (shot in the left side of his head, blindness occured on the right side of vision) |
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Hemianopia |
Blindess of half your visual field. |
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Quadrantanopia |
Blindess of a quarter of your visual field. |
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Receptive Field |
"An area of the body surface where a stimulus could elicit a reflex."
The area of the world which a neuron responds to (specific of location, size, preferred stimulus properties are unique for each neuron).
General Principle: as we move forward in the visual system, RF's become larger and preferred stimulus properties become more complex as we perceive more detail.
More neurons fire at the "focus point" of your vision vs. your peripheral vision. |
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Center-Surround RF |
RF of retinal ganglion cell. A retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a type of neuron located near the inner surface of the retina of the eye. It receives visual information from photoreceptors.
Excitory center/inhibitory surround. |
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Center-Surround Neurons |
Photo receptors in center cause more firing than on the outside (surrounding). |
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2 Kinds of Ganglion Cells... |
Parvo Cells vs. Magno Cells
Parvo Cells: Outnumber magno cells, smaller than magno cells. Because of their sensitivity to different hues, they are particulary suited for perceiving color and form.
Magno Cells: Larger than parvo cells, sensitive to brightness, perceive motion and depth. |
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"Preferred Stimulus" |
Cells in the visual cortex each seem to have a "preferred stimulus", and each cell fires more rapidly when this special stimulus is in veiw. |
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"Divide and Conquer" strategy |
The visual system relies on a "divide and conquer" strategy, different cells and even different parts of the brain each specialize in a particular kind of analysis. Everything is parallel- meaning happening at the same time. It is the features of an object, not the interpretation of it, that has priority. The features of an object guide the interpretation, so they must be in place before an interpretation can be made. |
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"What" and "Where" Systems... |
"What" system: The visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe; especially involved in identifying objects (ex:cat,door,car,apple). Located in the inferotemporal cortex.
"Where" system: The visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe; especially involved in locating objects in space and coordinating movements (ex:above,left,right,down,up). Located in the posterior parietal cortex. |
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Binding Problem |
The problem confronted by the brain of recombining the elements of a stimulus, given the fact that these elements are initially analyzed seperatley by different neural systems. |
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Neural Synchrony |
Different groups of neurons firing in synchrony with each other, to identify which sensory elements belong with which. Like drummers playing the same beat. |
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Perceptual Constancy |
The accurate perception of certain attributes of a distal object, such as its shape, size, and brightness, despite changes in the proximity stimulus caused by variations in our viewing circumstances. |
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Size Constancy |
Correctly perceiving the sizes of objects in the world despite changes in our retinal-image size created by changes in our viewing distance.
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Shape Constancy |
Correctly perceiving the shapes of objects in the world despite changes in the retinal image created by shifts in our viewing angle. |
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Brightness Constancy |
We correctly perceive the brightness of objects whether theyre illuminated by dim light or strong sun. |
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Unconscious Inference |
A process postulated by Harmann Von Helmhotlz, to explain certain perceptual phenomena such as size constancy. For example, an object is perceived to be at a certain distance and this is unconsciously taken into account in assessing it's retinal image size, with the result that size constancy is maintained. i.e. We unconsciously process this information. |
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Depth Cues |
Sources of information that signal the distance from the observer to the distal stimulus (ex: a uniform floor pattern). |
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Binocular Disparity (Depth Cue) |
A depth cue based on the differences between the two eyes views of the world. This difference becomes less pronounced the farther an object is from the observer (looking with both eyes). |
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Monocular Disparity (Depth Cue) |
Features of the visual stimulus that indicate distance even if the stimulus is veiwed with one eye (ex: something in front of something else, mailbox and car example = interposition) |
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Pictorial Cues |
Patterns that can be represented on a flat surface in order to create a sense of a three dimensional object or source. |
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Interposition |
A monocular cue to distance that relies on the fact that objects farther away are blocked from view by closer objects (ex: mailbox and car). |
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Linear Perspective |
A cue for distance based on the fact that parallel lines seem to converge as they get farther away from the viewer. |
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Motion Parallax (Depth Cue) |
A depth cue based on the fact that, as an observer moves, the retinal images of nearby objects move more rapidly than the retinal images of objects far away. |
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Motion Detectors (Cells) |
Cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to an image moving in a particular direction across the retina. |
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Visual Cortex |
The part of the cerebral cortex that receives and processes sensory nerve impulses from the eyes. |
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Apparent Movement |
The perception of movement produced by stimuli that are stationary but are presented first at one position, and then at an appropriate time interval, another. An optical illusion of motion produced by viewing a rapid succession of still pictures of a moving object; "the cinema relies on apparent motion"; "the succession of flashing lights gave an illusion of movement" |
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Position Constancy |
Whenever you move your eyes or turn your head, you unconsciously compute the shift in the retinal image that your own motion will produce, and you cancel out this amount of movement in interpreting the visual input. |
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Induced Motion |
Perceived movement of a stationary stimulus, usually caused by movement of a surrounding frame-work or nearby objects (ex: you're sitting still in traffic, but cars are moving slowly past you). |
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Correspondence Problem |
As your view changes, the perceptual task of determining which aspects of the current view correspond to which aspects of the view seen a moment ago. |
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Orienting |
Adjusting information, the senses, and focusing on just one. (Same as attending) (ex: If I'm concentrating on reading a book, background noise will disappear) |
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Illusory Conjunction |
A pattern of errors in which observers correctly perceive the features present in a display, such as color & letters, but misperceive how they were combined. They might report a green Y and red X when really there was a red Y and a green X. "Misconjoining." |
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Priming |
The process through which a detector or portion of the nervous system is prepared for an upcoming input, making it easier for the participant to recognize that input. |
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Attention |
Perception is selective-we perceive only a small subset of availible information. Attention allows us to "attend" or focus our resources on what's important. Even though we have input everywhere, we tend to focus on only a few at a time. (ex: "monkey business illusion", "spot the difference" videos) |
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Exogenous Attention: |
Reflexive, even when task is irrelevant, shows a cueing effect. |
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Endogenous Attention |
Voluntary attention, driven by the subject, intentional focus. (ex: I TELL you to feel the chair on your back, Helmholtz example). |
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Inattentional Blindness |
Humans have a limited attentional capacity, and often fail to notice an object because attention was engaged elsewhere (ex:jet engine test)
Change blindness: A type of inattentional blindness, failure to notice change between two stimuli. Likely due to attention (can only process so much at a time) (ex: curtain from red to orange).
Posner et al 1978: valid/invalid cues such as arrows pointing to and away from a visual stimulus such as a sqaure. Invalid: the arrow was cueing away from stimulus, took longer for subjects to respond that they saw the stimulus. |
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"Spotlight of Attention" |
Area of intentional focus, dissociable from gaze location ( what you are looking at is not always what you are focusing on, ex: listening to someones conversation, feeling the chair on your back, etc). This is necessary to bind color and shape information, when that doesnt happen, you have illusory conjunction.
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Neglect (Brain Damage) |
Impairment in responding to stimuli on the contralesional side (opposite the lesion/brain damage, for ex: brain damage on the right side, trouble corresponding with stimuli appearing on the left). Neglect is usually subsequent to right hemisphere damage, so it affects the left side. Subjects are often not aware of this deficit. No damage to primary areas (visual cortex). Vision is completely in tact, but they have trouble attending to everything. A neuropsychological condition in which, after damage to one hemisphere of the brain is sustained, a deficit in attention to and awareness of one side of space is observed. It is defined by the inability of a person to process and perceive stimuli on one side of the body or environment that is not due to a lack of sensation. |
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Classical vs. Operant Conditioning |
Classical conditioning is about making two stimuli related that once werent, while Operant conditioning is about reinforcing behavior (pos/neg). |
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Shaffer & Merrens Rat Latency Study |
Gave pregnant rats different diets (normal, sugar, and ethanol) then tested their children on latency (spatial learning) by seeing if the children of the rats would make more errors/take longer to find the platform in milky water than rats babies who had the normal diet or sugar. |
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Problems with Skinner and Operant Conditioning |
Operant conditioning fails to taken into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals. For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight rather than by trial and error learning. Also social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal experience. The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation. Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and they cannot think about their experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort. |
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Prior to the Action Potential... |
When a neuron is not sending signals, the inside of the neuron has a negative charge relative to the positive charge outside the cell. Electrically charged chemicals known as ions maintain the balance of positive and negative charges. Calcium contains two positive charges, sodium and potassium contain one positive charge and chloride contains a negative charge. When at rest, the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to pass through while preventing or restricting the movement of other ions. In this state, sodium and potassium ions cannot easily pass through the membrane. Potassium ions, however, are able to freely cross the membrane. The negative ions inside of the cell are unable to cross the barrier. The cell must activity transport ions in order to maintain its polarized state. This mechanism is known as the sodium-ion pump. For every two potassium ions that pass through the membrane, three sodium ions are pumped out. |
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At the Synapse... |
presynaptic cell: Na+ floods in, Ca++ channels open, Ca++ bind to protein vesicles on terminal end of neuron, they are released across the synapse and travel to the postsynaptic neuron |
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REINFORCEMENT CHART |
stimulus present/stimulus withheld combined with behavior encouraged/behavior repressed
stimulus presented/behavior encouraged: positive reinforcement "reward"
stimulus presented/behavior surpressed: presentation punishment (ex:detention)
stimulus removal/behavior encouraged: negative reinforcement "escape" (ex: no chores)
stimulus removal/behavior surpressed: removal punishment (ex: no tv for a week) |
