Organizational Behaviour

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The capacity of a person, team , or organization to influence others.

(It is not the act of changing someone's attitudes or behaviour, if is only the potential to do so. It is based on the perception that the person controls a valuable resource that can help them achieve their goals. Power involves asymmetric (unequal) dependence of one party on another party.)

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Power

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The capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship.

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Countervailing Power

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Legitimate: an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviours from others. Perceived right originates from the formal job descriptions as well as informal rules of conduct. Has restrictions, only gives powerholder the right to ask for a range of behaviours (the zone of indifference) which is the set of behaviours that individuals are willing to engage in at the other person's request. This zone increases with the level of trust. And some people more naturally obey authority. Both employees and bosses can have it. Norm of reciprocity - a feeling of obligation to help someone who helped you. A particularly potent form exists where people have the right to control the info that others receive. They gain this power in two ways: info is a resource and those who need the info are dependent on the gatekeeper to supply the resource. Also by selectively distributing info so those receiving the info perceive the situation differently.

Reward: derived from the person's ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions. Both managers (rewards) and employees can have this (360degree feedback).

Coercive: the ability to apply punishment. Includes managers threatening employees with dismissal, and employees being sarcastic to coworkers. Can be used to control co-worker behaviour in team settings.

Expert: originates from within the powerholder. An individual's or work unit's capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills valued by others. One important form is the (perceived) ability to manage uncertainties in the business environment. Prevention (prevent environmental changes from occurring), Forecasting (to predict environmental changes or variations), & Absorption (absorbing or neutralizing the impact of environmental shifts as they occur). Similar to power of authority because many people tend to follow the guidance of these experts without careful thought.

Referent: people have this when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them. Originates within the powerholder and is largely a function of a person's interpersonal skills and tends to develop slowly. Also associated with charisma which is most often described as a form of interpersonal attraction whereby followers ascribe almost magical powers to the charismatic person.

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Sources of Power

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an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviours from others. Perceived right originates from the formal job descriptions as well as informal rules of conduct. Has restrictions, only gives powerholder the right to ask for a range of behaviours (the zone of indifference) which is the set of behaviours that individuals are willing to engage in at the other person's request. This zone increases with the level of trust. And some people more naturally obey authority. Both employees and bosses can have it. Norm of reciprocity - a feeling of obligation to help someone who helped you. A particularly potent form exists where people have the right to control the info that others receive. They gain this power in two ways: info is a resource and those who need the info are dependent on the gatekeeper to supply the resource. Also by selectively distributing info so those receiving the info perceive the situation differently.

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Legitimate Power

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a feeling of obligation to help someone who helped you.

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Reciprocity

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Prevention (prevent environmental changes from occurring), Forecasting (to predict environmental changes or variations), & Absorption (absorbing or neutralizing the impact of environmental shifts as they occur).

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Expert Power - Coping Strategies

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people have this when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them. Originates within the powerholder and is largely a function of a person's interpersonal skills and tends to develop slowly. Also associated with charisma which is most often described as a form of interpersonal attraction whereby followers ascribe almost magical powers to the charismatic person.

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Referent Power

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Substitutability: the availability of alternatives. Power is strongest when someone has monopoly over a valued resource and conversely, power decreases as the number of alternative sources of the critical resource increases. Refers not only to other sources that offer the resource, but also substitutes to the resource itself (like labour unions being weakened when technology replaces the need of their workers). Nonsubstitutability is strengthened by controlling access to the resource. Also occurs when people differentiate their resource from the alternatives.

Centrality: refers to the powerholder's importance based on the degree and nature of interdependence between the powerholder and others. Increases with the number of people dependent on you as well as how quickly and severely they are affected by that dependence.

Discretion: the freedom to exercise judgment-to make decisions without referring to a specific rule or receiving permission from someone else.

Visibility: Does not flow to unknown people in the organization. Those who control valued resources or knowledge will yield power only when others are aware of these sources of power: ie they are visible. Also gain visibility by being literally visible. Locating themselves in visible offices, using public symbols as subtly (and not so subtle cues) to make their power sources known to others). Game of "face time"- spending more time at work and showing they are working productively.

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Contingencies of Power

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People get ahead not just by developing their competencies but by locating themselves within social networks (social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence. Exist because people have a drive to bond. People rely on social networks for both expressive and instrumental purposes. Social networks are natural elements of all organizations, yet they can create a formidable barrier to those not actively connected to it.

Social networks generate power through social capital which is the good will and resulting resources shared among members in a social network. Offer a variety of resources, each of which potentially enhances the power of its members. Best known resource is information from other network members, which improves the individual's expert power. Goodwill of social capital opens communication pipelines among those within the network. Network members receive valuable knowledge more easily and quickly from fellow network members than do people outside that network. Better info access and timeliness, members have more power because their expertise is a scarce resource; it is not widely available to people outside the network. Increased visibility is the second way that social networks increase one's power. Network members are more likely to recommend someone from within the network than someone outside it. Reciprocity increases among network members as they become more embedded in the network.

Gaining power from social networks: social capital tends to increase with the number of network ties. People with weak ties to diverse networks have more strength with job hunting and career development. Social network centrality, more betweenness you have, the more you control the distribution of info an other resources to people on either side of you.

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Power from social networks??

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One of the most effective influence strategies for career success. The ability to use facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person's beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing that person's behaviour, is not just an acceptable way to influence others; in many societies, it is a noble art and a quality of effective leaders. Effectiveness as an influence tactic depends on the characteristics of the persuader, message content, communication medium, and the audience being persuaded. People are more persuasive when listeners believe they have expertise and credibility, such as when the persuader does not seem to profit from the persuasion attempt and states a few points against the position.

Persuader: expertise, credibility, no apparent profit motive, appears somewhat neutral. Message content: multiple viewpoints that do not exclusively support the preferred option, limited to a few strong arguments, repeat arguments but not excessively, use emotional appeals in combination with logical arguments, offers specific solutions to overcome the stated problems, innoculation effect - audience warned of counter-arguments that opposition will present. Communication channels: media rich channels are usually more persuasive. Audience characteristics: lower self esteem, lower intelligence, self concept is not tied to the opposing view.

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Persuasion

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an integral part of exchange influence activities. exchange activities involve the promise of benefits and resources in exchange for the target person's compliance with your request. Exchange also includes applying the norm of reciprocity by reminding the target of past benefits or favors with the expectation that the target will now make up for that debt.

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negotiation and influence

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Influence operates down, across, and up the corporate heirarchy. Supervisors ensure that employees complete required tasks. Employees influence co-workers to help them with their job assignments. Employees engage in upward influence tactics so corporate leaders make decisions compatible with employee's needs and expectations.

People can influence others regardless of the individual position.

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directions influence flows

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Silent authority: influencing behaviour through legitimate power with explicitly referring to that power base.

Assertiveness: Actively applying legitimate and coercive power by applying pressure or threats.

Information control: Explicitly manipulating someone else's access to info for the purpose of changing their attitudes and/or beliefs.

Coalition formation: forming a group that attempts to influence others by pooling the resources and the power of its members.

Upward appeal: gaining support from one or more people with higher authority or expertise.

Persuasion: using logical arguments, factual evidence, and emotional appeals to convince people of the value of a request.

Ingratiation/impression management: attempting to increase liking by, or perceived similarity to, some targeted person.

Exchange: promising benefits or resources in exchange for the target person's compliance.

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types of influence

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Resistance occurs when people or work units oppose the behaviour desired by the influencer by refusing, arguing, or delaying engagement in the behaviour.

Compliance: occurs when people are motivated to implement the influencer's request at a minimal level of effort and for purely instrumental reasons. Without external sources to prompt the desired behaviour, compliance would not occur.

Commitment is the strongest outcome of influence, whereby people identify with the influencer's request and are highly motivated to implement it even when extrinsic sources of motivation are no longer present.

People react more favorably to soft tactics than to hard tactics. Soft influence tactics rely on personal sources of power (expert and referent power) which tend to build commitment to the influencer's request. In contrast, hard tactics rely on position power (legitimate, reward, and coercion), so they tend to produce compliance, or worse, resistance. Hard tactics also tend to undermine trust which can hurt future relationships. (287)

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results of different influence tactics

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Personal Characteristics affect an individuals motivation to engage in self-serving behaviour. This includes a strong need for personal as opposed to socialized power. Those with a need for personal power seek power for its own sake and try to acquire more power. Some individuals have strong Machiavellian values: the belief that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable. People with high Machaivellian values are comfortable with getting more they deserve and believe that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to achieve this goal. They seldom trust co-workers and tend to use cruder influence tactics, such as bypassing one's boss or being assertive to get their own way.

Employees more likely to engage in _____ ____ under certain conditions: scarce resources (people safeguard their resources and maintain the status quo through political tactics), when resource allocation decisions are ambiguous, complex, or lack formal rules (decision makers are given more discretion over the resource allocation), organizational change encourages political behaviours because of this. Change creates ambiguity as the company moves from the old set of rules and practices to a new set. Employees use political strategies to protect their valued resources, position, and self-concept.

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reasons for organizational politics

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Introduce clear rules and regulations that specify the use of scarce resources. Can become a problem through times of organizational change so can be minimized through effective organizational change practices. Leaders need to actively manage group norms to curtail self-serving influence activities. They can support organizational values that oppose political activities such as altruism and customer focus. One of the most important strategies is for leaders to become role models of organizational citizenship rather than symbols of successful organizational politicians.

Give employees more control of their work and keep them informed of organizational events to limit the adverse effects of political perceptions.

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ways of reducing organizational politics

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any attempt to increase liking by, or perceived similarity to, some targeted person. Comes in several flavors: employees may flatter their boss, demonstrate they have similar attitudes as their boss, and ask their boss for advice. One of the most effective influence tactics at boosting a person's career success. However, people who engage in high levels are less (not more) influential and less likely to get promoted. Too much is viewed as insincere and self-serving. Part of a larger influence tactic known as impression management: the practice of actively changing shaping our public images.

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Ingratiation

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a process in which one party perceives that his or her interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. May occur when one party obstructs another's goals in some way, or just from one party's perception that the other party is going to do. Exists whenever one party believes that another might obstructs its effort, whether the other party actually intends to do so.

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conflict

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a type of conflict in which people focus their discussion on the issue while maintaining respect for people having other points of view. Different positions are encouraged so ideas and recommendations can be clarified, redesigned, and tested for logical soundness. Also called task-related conflict.

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constructive conflict

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Also known as socioemotional conflict, focuses on the characteristics of the other individuals, rather than on the issues, as the source of conflict. Try to undermine the other person's argument by questioning their competency. Attacking a person's credibility or displaying an aggressive response toward him or her triggers defense mechanisms and a competitive orientation. Reduces trust because the strong negative emotions that typically accompany this conflict undermine any identification with the other person, leaving the relationship held together mainly by calculus based trust.

More easily esclates (300)

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relationship conflict

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Conflict energizes people to debate issues and evaluate alternatives more thoroughly. debate tests the logic of the arguments and encourages participants to re-examine their basic assumptions about the problem and its possible solution. Prevents groups and individuals from making inferior decisions. As individuals and teams strive to reach agreement, they learn more about each other and come to understand the underlying issues that need to be addressed. This helps them to develop more creative solutions that reflect the needs of multiple stakeholders. By generating active thinking, conflict also potentially improves creativity.

Also prevents organizations from stagnating and becoming non-responsive to their external environment. Employees continuously question current practices and become more sensitive to dissatisfaction from stakeholders. Generates more vigilance.

when teams have a dispute or competition with external sources, cohesion can potentially increase within the team. Motivates people to work together when faced with an external threat, such as conflict with people outside the team.

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benefits of moderate conflict

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Sources of conflict (incompatible goals, differentiation, interdependence, scare resources, ambiguous rules, poor communication) to Conflict Perceptions and Emotions to Manifest Conflict (conflict style, decisions, overt behaviours) to Conflict Outcomes (Positive: better decisions, responsive organization, team cohesion. Negative: stress/low morale, turnover, politics, lower performance, distorted information).

Area between Conflict Perceptions and Emotions & Manifest Conflict is where conflict escalates.

Conflict is a series of episodes that potentially cycle into conflict escalation. It doesn't take much to start this cycle, just an inappropriate comment, a misunderstanding, or action that lacks diplomacy. This can cause the other party to perceive that conflict exists.

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conflict process model

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Incompatible Goals: the goals of one person or department seem to interfere with another person's or department's goals.

Differentiation: differences among people or work units regarding their training, values, beliefs, and experiences. can be distinguished from goal incompatibility in that two people may agree on a common goal but have different beliefs about how to achieve the goal. Intergenerational conflicts too.

Interdependence: the higher the level of task interdependence, the higher the conflict. There is a greater chance that each side will disrupt or interfere with the other side's goals. (pooled, sequential, and reciprocal).

Scarce Resources: generates conflict because each person or unit requiring the same resource necessarily undermines those who also need that resource to fulfill their goals.

Ambiguous Rules: or the complete lack of rules breeds conflict because uncertainty increases the risk that one party intends to interfere with the other party's goals. Also encourages political tactics and, in some cases, a free for all battle to win decisions in their favor. Clear rules let employees know what to expect from each other and have agreed to abide by the rules.

Communication Problems: Conflict occurs due to the lack of opportunity, ability, or motivation to communicate effectively. When two parties lack the opportunity to communicate, they tend to rely more on stereotypes to understand the other party in the conflict and since stereotypes are sufficiently subjective and emotions can negatively distort the meaning of an opponent's actions, thereby escalating perceptions of conflict. some people lack the skills that are necessary to communicate in a diplomatic, nonconfrontational manner. Arrogance can heighten the perception of the conflict. Also relationship conflict us uncomfortable so people are less motivated to communicate with others in a disagreement. Unfortunately, less communication can further escalate the conflict because each side has less accurate info about the other side's intentions. To fill in the missing pieces, they rely on distorted images and perceptions of the other party. Perceptions are further distorted because people in conflict situations tend to engage in more differentiation with those who are different from them. This differentiation creates a more positive self-concept and a more negative image of the opponent. (305)

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structural sources of conflict

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Each party moves along a continuum in opposite directions with an area of potential overlap called the _________ _____. Can also be applied to situations where both sides can gain from the negotiations. Three main negotiating points: initial offer point: the team's opening offer to the other party. Target Point: the team's realistic goal or expectation for a final agreement. The resistance point is the point beyond which the team will make no further concessions.

Begin negotiations by describing their initial offer point for each item on the agenda. In most cases, the participants know that this is only a starting point that will change as both sides offer concessions. In win-lose situations, neither the target nor the resistance point is revealed to the other party. However, people try to discover the other side's resistance point because this knowledge helps them determine how much they can gain without breaking off negotiations.

Implies that parties compete against each other to reach their target point.

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bargaining zone model 3

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Relationship conflict is less likely to occur, or less likely to escalate, when team member have high levels of ______ _______. Employees with higher __ __ are better able to regulate their emotions during debate, which reduces the risk of escalating perceptions of interpersonal hostility. Also more likely to view a co-worker's emotional reaction as valuable info about that person's needs and expectations, rather than as a personal attack.

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conflict and emotional intelligence

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Problem Solving: tries to find a solution that is beneficial for both parties. win-win orientation because people believe the resources at stake are expandable rather than fixed if the parties work together to find a creative solution.

Info sharing is an important feature because both parties collaborate to identify common ground and potential solutions that satisfy everyone involved.

Forcing: tries to win at the other's expense - win-lose orientation because they believe the parties are drawing from a fixed pie so the more one party receives, the less the other party will receive (assertiveness).

Avoiding: tries to smooth over or avoid conflict situations all together. represents a low concern for both self and the other party. avoiders try to find ways to avoid thinking about the conflict.

Yielding: giving in completely to the other side's wishes, or at least cooperating with little or no attention to your own interests. Involves making unilateral concessions and unconditional promises, as well as offering help with no expectation of reciprocal help.

Compromising: involves looking for a position in which your losses are offset by equally valued gains. Involves matching the other party's concessions, making conditional promises or threats, and actively searching for a middle ground between the interests of the two parties.

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interpersonal conflict management styles

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Problem solving: best when interests are not perfectly opposing; parties have trust, openness, and time to share into; issues are complex. Problems are that sharing info with the other party that they might use to their advantage.

Forcing: best when you have deep conviction about your position; quick solution needed; the other party would take advantage of more cooperative strategies. Problem: highest risk of relationship conflict; may damage long term relations, reducing future problem solving.

Avoiding: best when conflict has become too emotionally charged, cost of trying to resolve the conflict outweighs the benefits. Problems: doesn't usually resolve the conflict; may increase the other party's frustration.

Yielding: best when other party has substantially more power; issue is much less important to you than to the other party; the value and logic of your position isn't as clear. problems: increases the other party's expectations in future conflict episodes.

Compromising: best when parties have equal power; time pressure to resolve the conflict; parties lack trust/openness for problem solving. problem: sub-optimal solution where mutual gains are possible.

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conflict management strategies

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Emotional intelligence: Relationship conflict is less likely to occur, or less likely to escalate, when team member have high levels of ______ _______. Employees with higher __ __ are better able to regulate their emotions during debate, which reduces the risk of escalating perceptions of interpersonal hostility. Also more likely to view a co-worker's emotional reaction as valuable info about that person's needs and expectations, rather than as a personal attack.

Cohesive team: suppresses relationship conflict when the conflict occurs within a highly cohesive team. The longer people work together, get to know one another, and develop mutual trust, the more latitude they give to each other to show emotions without being personally offended. Strong cohesion also allows each person to know about and anticipate the behaviours and emotions of their teammates. Also produces a stronger social identity within the group so team members are motivated to avoid escalating relationship conflict during otherwise emotionally turbulent discussions.

Supportive Team Norms: various team norms can hold relationship conflict at bay during constructive debate. Team norms also encourage tactics that diffuse relationship conflict when it first appears. Low relationship conflict teams use humor to maintain positive group emotions, which offsets negative feelings team members might develop toward some co-workers during debate.

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ways of decreasing relationship conflict

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any attempt by a relatively neutral person to help conflicting parties resolve their differences.

Three main types:

Arbitration: high control over final decision and low control over the process. Executives engage in this strategy by following previously agreed rules of due process, listening to arguments from the disputing employees, and making a binding decision. Applied as final stage of grievances by unions.

Inquisition: control all discussion about conflict and have high decision control because they choose an action that will resolve the conflict and they have high process control because they choose which information to examine and how to examine it, and they generally decide how the conflict resolution process will be handled.

Mediation: high control over the intervention process. Main purpose is to manage the process and context of interaction b/w the disputing parties. However, the parties make the final decision about how to resolve their differences. Thus, mediators have little or no control over the conflict resolution decision.

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third party conflict resolution

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Hallmark is a combination of competition and cooperation. Negotiators need to cooperate with each other to create value, to find ways to achieve mutually satisfactory outcomes for both parties. Cooperation maintains a degree of trust necessary to share info. May also improve concessions so the negotiations are resolved more quickly and with greater mutual gains.

Claiming value:

Prepare and set goals, know your (BATNA) best alternative to a negotiated agreement, manage time (more concessions with closer deadlines), manage first offers and concessions (concessions: 1. enable parties to move toward potential agreement, 2. symbolize each party's motivation to bargain in good faith, and 3. they tell the other party the relative importance of negotiating items).

Creating value:

Gathering information, discover priorities through offers and concessions, and build the relationship. (316)

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successful negotiations

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Negotiators tend to act differently when their audience observes the negotiation or has detailed info about the process, compared to situations in which audience only sees the end results. When audience has direct surveillance over the proceedings, negotiators tend to be more competitive, less willing to make concessions, and more likely to engage in political tactics against the other party. This hardline behaviour shows the audience that the negotiator is working for their interests. With their audience watching, negotiators also have more interest in saving face.

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effect of an audience on negotiations

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Personality: the leader's higher levels of extroversion (outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive) and conscientiousness (careful, dependable, and self-disciplined).

Self-concept: the leader's self beliefs and positive self-evaluation about his or her own leadership skills and ability to achieve objectives.

Drive: The leader's inner motivation to pursue goals.

Integrity: The leader's truthfulness and tendency to translate words into deeds.

Leadership motivation: Leader's need for socialized power to accomplish team or organizational goals.

Knowledge of the Business: The leader's tacit and explicit knowledge about the company's environment, enabling the leader to make more intuitive decisions.

Cognitive and Practical Intelligence: The leader's above average cognitive ability to process info (cognitive intelligence) and the ability to solve real world problems by adapting to, shaping, or selecting appropriate environments (practical intelligence).

Emotional Intelligence: The leader's ability to monitor his or her own and other's emotions, discriminate among them, and use the information to guide his or her thoughts and actions.

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leadership competencies

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Directive Vs Supportive Leaders:

Directive: assign work and clarify responsibilities, set goals and deadlines, evaluate and provide feedback on work quality, establish well-defined best work procedures, & plan future work activities. (higher job performance)

Supportive: Listen to employees, make the workplace more pleasant, show interest in others as people, recognize employees for their work, & are considerate of employee needs. (reduces absenteeism, grievances, turnover, and job dissatisfaction).

Servant leadership: extension of supportive leadership style because it defines leadership as serving others toward their need fulfillment, personal development, and growth. natural desire or calling to serve others and maintain a relationship with others that is humble, egalitarian, and accepting and anchor their decisions and actions in ethical principles and practices.

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behavioural perspective of leadership

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a contingency theory of leadership based on the expectancy theory of motivation that relates several leadership styles to specific employee and situational contingencies. Effective leaders ensure that good performers receive more valued rewards than do poor performers. Also provide the info, support, and other resources necessary to help employees complete their tasks. (335-336)

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path-goal theory

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Has more research support than other contingency leadership models, but evidence is far from complete. Some haven't been investigated at all. Another concern is that as the theory expands, the model may become too complex for practical use. Few people would be able to remember all the contingencies and the appropriate leadership style for those contingencies.

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limitations of path-goal theory

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Views effective leaders as agents of change in the work unit or organization. They can create, communicate, and model a shared vision for the team or organization and they inspire followers to strive fort that vision.

Agents of change who energize employees to a new vision and corresponding behaviours.

Particularly important in organizations that require significant alignment with the external environment. Without them, organizations stagnate and eventually become seriously misaligned with their environments.

pg 342

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transformational leaders

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a theory stating that people evaluate a leader's effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders (leadership prototypes), and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders on organizational events.

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implicit leadership perspective

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Men and women leaders do not differ in their levels of directive or supportive leadership. Women adopt a participative leadership style more readily than their male counterparts. Girls are often raised to be more egalitarian and less status-oriented which is consistent with being participative. Also some evidence that women have somewhat better interpersonal skills than men and this translates into their relatively greater use of the participative leadership style. Also, employees on the basis of their own gender stereotypes, expect female leaders to be more participative, so they comply with follower expectations to some extent.

Women are rated higher than men on the emerging qualities of coaching, teamwork, and empowering employees. Yet research also suggests that women are evaluated negatively when they try to apply the full range of leadership styles, particularly more directive and autocratic approaches. Thus, ironically, women may be well suited to contemporary leadership roles, yet they often continue to face limitations of leadership through the gender stereotypes and prototypes of leaders that are held by followers. Overall, both male and female leaders must be sensitive to the fact that followers have expectations about how leaders should act, and negative evaluations may go to leaders who deviate from those expectations.

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leadership styles and gender

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suggests that leadership is plural, not singular. It doesn't operate out of one formally assigned position, role, or individual. Instead, employees lead each other as the occasion arises. Leadership is not restricted to the executive suite. Employees throughout the organization need to informally assume leadership responsibilities in various ways and at various times. Calls for collaborative rather than internally competitive culture because employees take on these roles when co-workers support them for their initiative. Also lacks formal authority so it operates best when employees learn to influence others through their enthusiasm, logical analysis, and involvement of co-workers in their idea or vision.

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shared leadership

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the view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality, and self-concept.

Knowing and being themselves. More than just self awareness, it also involves behaving in ways that are consistent with that self-concept rather than pretending to be someone else. great leaders regulate their decisions and behaviour in several ways: 1 develop their own style and place themselves in positions where that style is most effective, and 2. they think about and consistently apply their stable hierarchy of personal values to those decisions and behaviours and 3. maintain consistency around their self concept by having a strong positive core self-evaluation. They have high self esteem and self-efficacy as well as an internal locus of control.

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authentic leadership

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extension of supportive leadership style because it defines leadership as serving others toward their need fulfillment, personal development, and growth. natural desire or calling to serve others and maintain a relationship with others that is humble, egalitarian, and accepting and anchor their decisions and actions in ethical principles and practices.

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servant leadership

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Has more research support than other contingency leadership models, but evidence is far from complete. Some haven't been investigated at all. Another concern is that as the theory expands, the model may become too complex for practical use. Few people would be able to remember all the contingencies and the appropriate leadership style for those contingencies. ??? 337

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problems with path-goal leadership theory

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Fiedler developed this model and according to it, leader effectiveness depends on whether the person's natural leadership style is appropriately matched to the situation. Suggests that the best leadership style depends on the level of situational control: the degree of power and influence that the leader possesses in a particular situation. Situational control is affected by three factors in the following order of importance: 1. leader-member relations: how much the employees trust and respect the leader and are willing to follow his or her guidance, 2. task structure: the clarity or ambiguity of operating procedures, 3. Position power: the extent to which the leader possesses legitimate, reward, and coercive power over subordinates. These three form the eight possible combinations of situation favorableness from the leader's viewpoint. Good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong position power create the most favorable position for the leader because he or she has the most power and control under these circumstances.

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contingency model of leadership theory

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a theory identifying contingencies that either limit a leader's ability to influence employees or make a particular leadership style unnecessary.

Directive leadership might be less important when performance-based reward systems keep employees directed toward organizational goals. Also, increasing employee skill and experience might reduce the need for directive leadership.

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leadership substitutes

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Preconceived beliefs about the features and behaviours of effective leaders. These develop through socialization within the family and society and shape the follower's expectations and acceptance of others as leaders, and this in turn affects the willingness to remain as a follower. Not only support a person's role as a leader, they also form our perception of the leader's effectiveness. People are more likely to believe a leader is effective when they look like and act consistently with their _______ of a leader. Occurs because people have an inherent need to quickly evaluate individuals as leaders, yet leadership effectiveness is often ambiguous and might not be apparent for a long time.

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leadership prototypes

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Culture shapes the leader's values and norms which influence his or her own decisions and actions. Cultural values also shape the expectations that followers have of their leaders. An executive who acts inconsistently with cultural expectations is more likely to be perceived as an ineffective leader. Furthermore, leaders who deviate from these values may experience various forms of influence to get them to conform to the leadership norms and expectations of the society. There are similarities and differences in the concept and preferred practice of leadership across cultures.

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culture and leadership