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137 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the functions of rbc?
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They carry oxygen throughout the blood.
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What is the structure of rbc?
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Lack a nucleus and few organelles. Biconcave shape increases surfaces area.
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What helps rbc carry oxygen?
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Surface area.
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How is CO2 transported?
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68% as a bicarbonate ion in the plasma (this conversion takes place in rbc's), 25% in rbc's, 7% as CO2 in the plasma.
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What are the functions of white blood cells?
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They fight infection and an important part of the immune system.
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Where can white blood cells be found?
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In the blood, tissues, and wherever else they are needed in the body.
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What is the structure of white blood cells and where do they come from?
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They are derived from red bone marrow. They are large blood cells that have a nucleus.
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What are the five types of wbc's?
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Eosinophil, basophil, and neutrophil (granular)
lymphocyte, and monocyte (agranular) |
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What are the functions of neutrophils?
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Upon infection they move out of circulation into tissues to use phagocytosis to engulf pathogens.
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What do lymphocytes do?
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Develop into B and T cells that are important in the immune system. (BLT)
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What do eosinophils do?
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Many large granules function in parasitic infections and play a role in allergies.
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What does basophil do?
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Releases histamine related to allergic reactions.
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What do monocytes do?
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Macrophages use phagocytosis to engulf pathogens.
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How does blood clot?
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Platelets cause the blood to clot.
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Where are platelets made? How many per day?
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In red bone marrow. About 200 billion platelets are made per day.
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What disorders involve WBC's?
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Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID), leukemia, infectious mononuceosis (mono).
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How do platelets clot?
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An enzymatic reaction occurs and because of that the platelets are able to make Fibrin threads to hold RBC back.
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What disorders involve platelets?
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Thrombocytopenia, thromboembolism, hemophilia.
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What is an antigen?
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A foreign substance, often a polysaccharid or protein, that stimulates an immune response.
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What is an antibody?
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Antibodies are proteins made in response to an antigen in the body and bind to that antigen.
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What is a blood transfusion?
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Transfer of blood from one individual into another individual.
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What determines blood type?
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Presence and/or absence of 2 blood antigens (A & B).
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What type of antigens will type A blood have? Antibodies?
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Antigens- A
Antibodies-B |
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What type of antigens will type O blood have? Antibodies?
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Antigens- None
Antibodies- Both |
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What type of antigens will type AB blood have? Antibodies?
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Antigens- Both
Antibodies- None |
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What type of blood is the universal recipient? Why?
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Type AB because it has both type A and B antigens and therefore no antibodies.
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What type of blood is the universal donor? Why?
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Type O because it has no antigens so therefore will not be blocked by any antibodies.
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What disorders involve RBC's?
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Anemia, sickle-cell anemia, and hemolytic disease of the newborn.
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What are the main steps in the digestive process?
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Ingestion- intake of food via the mouth.
Digestion- mechanically or chemically breaking down food into their subunits. Movement-food much be moved along the GI tract in the order to fulfill all functions. Absorption- movement of nutrients across the GI tract wall to be delivers to cell via the blood. Elimination. |
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What are the 4 major layers that make up the wall of the GI tract?
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Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa.
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What is the mucosa of the GI tract?
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Innermost layer that produces mucus that protect the lining and also produce digestive enzymes.
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What is the submucosa of the GI tract?
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2nd layer of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves.
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What is the muscularis of the GI tract?
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2rd layer made of 2 layers of smooth muscle that move food along the Gi tract.
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What is serosa of the GI tract?
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Outer lining that is part of the peritoneum.
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What is the pathway that food follows?
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Mouth---Pharynx---Esophagus---Stomach---Small intestine---Large intestine---Rectum---Anus
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What role does the mouth play in the digestive tract?
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3 pairs of salivary glands secrete salivary amylase that begins carbohydrate digestion.
Contains teeth that begin the mechanical breakdown of food **The tongue forms a bolus (mass of chewed food) and moves it toward the pharynx** |
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What role does the pharynx play in the digestive tract?
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Pharynx is a cavity between the mouth and esophagus that serves as a passageway for food (and air).
The beginning of food being swallowed from the mouth into the pharynx (voluntary). |
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When is the bolus formed?
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The tongue forms a bolus (mass of chewed food) and moves it toward the pharynx
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What role does the esophagus play in the digestive tract?
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Esophagus is a long, muscular tube that carries food to the stomach.
The epiglottis covers the voice box to make sure food is routed into the esophagus. Food moves down the esophagus through peristalsis (rhythmic contraction). |
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What role does the stomach play in the digestive tract?
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Functions to store food, start digestion of proteins and controls movement of chyme into the small intestine.
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What role does the small intestine play in the digestive tract?
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Enzymes secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Bile is secreted by the gallbladder into the small intestine to emulsify fats Digested food is absorbed through large surface area created by numerous villi (finger-like projections) and microvilli Amino acids and sugars enter the capillaries while fatty acids and glycerol enter the lacteals (small lymph vessels) |
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How big is the small intestine?
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Averages 6m (18 ft) in length.
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What are the 3 accessory organs?
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Pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
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What is the GI tract?
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The Human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine, and sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus. (The "digestive system" is a broader term that includes other structures, including the accessory organs of digestion).
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What are the functions of the pancreas?
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1. Secretes enzymes into the small intestine
Trypsin digests proteins Lipase digests fats Pancreatic amylase digests carbohydrates 2. Secretes bicarbonate into the small intestine to neutralize stomach acids 3. Secretes insulin into the blood to keep blood sugar levels under control |
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What are the functions of the liver and gallbladder?
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-Filters blood from the GI tract thus acting to remove poisons and detoxify the blood
-Removes iron, vitamins A, D, E, K and B12 from the blood and stores them -Stores glucose as glycogen and breaks it down to help retain blood glucose levels -Makes plasma proteins and helps regulate cholesterol levels by making bile salts -Makes bile that is then stored in the gallbladder to be secreted into the small intestine to emulsify fats -Breaks down hemoglobin |
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What are some liver disorders?
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Hepatits- inflammation of the liver. Caused by hepatitis a, b, & c.
Cirrhosis- Liver becomes fatty and eventually this tissue is replaced by fibrous scar tissue. Seen in alcoholics and obese people. |
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What role does the large intestine play in the digestive system?
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-Absorb water to prevent dehydration
-Absorbs vitamins (B complex and K) produced by intestinal flora -Forms and rids the body of feces through the anus |
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What parts of the body are included in the large intestine?
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Includes the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal.
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Disorders of the colon and rectum.
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Diarrhea
Constipation Hemorrhoids – enlarged and inflamed blood vessels of the anus due to chronic constipation, pregnancy, aging and anal intercourse Diverticulosis – occurrence of pouches of mucosa from weak spots in the muscularis layer that can become infected often in the colon Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) – muscularis layer contracts with power but without its normal coordination that is characterized by chronic diarrhea and abdominal pain Inflammatory bowel disease/colitis (IBD) – a group of inflammatory disorders such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease Polyps and cancer – small growths found in the epithelial lining that can be benign or cancerous. |
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What do carbs break down into?
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Sugars or polysaccharides that are digested into simple sugars that are an important energy source.
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What are the regular organic compounds?
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Carbohydrates
Proteins Lipids |
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What are the basic nutrients to a healthy lifestyle?
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Carbohydrates
Proteins Lipids Minerals Vitamins |
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What are proteins broken down into?
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Proteins are digested into 20 different amino acids which are used to produce cellular proteins.
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Where do complete proteins that have all 8 essential amino acids come from?
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Animals such as meat and dairy.
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What are essential amino acids?
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The 8 amino acids that must be obtained through diet.
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Where are the amino acids broken down from proteins stored?
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Amino acids cannot be stored in the body thus small amounts (2 meat servings) need to be ingested on a daily basis.
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What do major minerals make up?
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Major minerals make up components of cells, body fluids and tissues (i.e. calcium)
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What do minor minerals make up?
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Minor minerals are components of larger molecules (i.e. iron in hemoglobin).
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How much minerals are in the body?
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The body contains > 5g of each major mineral and < 5g of each trace mineral.
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How does the body obtain minerals?
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A varied and complete diet usually provides necessary minerals.
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What are vitamins?
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Organic compounds (not including proteins, fats or carbohydrates) used for metabolism but are not produced in high enough quantity by the body.
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What do vitamins help?
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Vitamins are often enzyme helpers (coenzymes).
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How many vitamins are there?
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There are a total of 13 vitamins in two groups: fat-soluble and water soluble.
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What does calcium do?
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Needed to make bone, nerve impulse conduction and muscle contraction.
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How much calcium do we need per day?
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1,000mg/day are recommended to keep bones healthy early in life and 1,300mg/day after menopausal age.
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Who is calcium's partner?
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Vitamin D.
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What is sodium needed for?
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Needed for regulating water balance.
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How much sodium do we need per day?
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500mg/day is the recommended amount (on average each American takes in 4,000 - 4,700mg/day).
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What is the pathway that air follows?
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Upper tract:
-nose -pharynx -larynx Lower Tract: -trachea -bronchus -bronchioles -alveoli |
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What is inspiration?
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An active process of inhalation that brings air into the lungs
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What is expiration?
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Usually a passive process of exhalation that expels air from the lungs.
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Process of inspiration
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The diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
The diaphragm flattens and the rib cage moves upward and outward Volume of the thoracic cavity and lungs increase The air pressure within the lungs decrease Air flows out of the lungs |
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Process of expiration
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The diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax
The diaphragm moves upward and becomes dome-shape The rib cage moves downward and inward Volume of the thoracic cavity and lungs decrease The air pressure within the lungs increases Air flows into the lungs |
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What is tidal volume?
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The small amount of air that usually moves in and out with each breath.
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What is vital capacity?
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The maximum volume of air that can be moved in plus the maximum amount that can be moved out during one breath
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What is residual volume?
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Residual volume – the air remaining in the lungs after exhalation.
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What is inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume?
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The increased volume of air moving in or out of the body.
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How is breathing controlled by the nervous system?
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Respiratory control center in the brain (medulla oblongata) sends out nerve impulses to contract muscle for inspiration.
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is thought to occur when this center stops sending out nerve signals. |
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How is breathing chemically controlled?
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2 sets of chemoreceptors sense the drop in pH: one set is in the brain and the other in the circulatory system.
Both are sensitive to carbon dioxide levels that change blood pH due to metabolism. |
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What gases are exchanged in the body?
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Oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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What do the exchange of gases depend on? How will oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse?
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Diffusion. Oxygen and carbon dioxide will diffuse from the area of higher to the area of lower partial pressure.
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What is partial pressure?
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Partial pressure is the amount of pressure each gas exerts (PCO2 or PO2).
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What is external respiration?
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Exchange of gases between the lung alveoli and the blood capillaries
PCO2 is higher in the lung capillaries than the air thus CO2 diffuses out of the plasma into the lungs The partial pressure pattern for O2 is just the opposite so O2 diffuses the red blood cells in the lungs. |
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What is internal respiration?
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The exchange of gases between the blood in the capillaries outside of the lungs and the tissue fluid
PO2 is higher in the capillaries than the tissue fluid thus O2 diffuses out of the blood into the tissues. |
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What are upper respiratory tract infections?
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Sinusitis – blockage of sinuses
Otitis media – infection of the middle ear Tonsillitis – inflammation of the tonsils Laryngitis – infection of the larynx that leads to loss of voice |
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What are lower respiratory tract infections?
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Pneumonia – infection of the lungs with thick, fluid build up
Tuberculosis – bacterial infection that leads to tubercles (capsules) Pulmonary fibrosis – lungs lose elasticity because fibrous connective tissue builds up in the lungs usually because of inhaled particles Emphysema – chronic, incurable disorder in which alveoli are damaged and thus the surface area for gas exchange is reduced Asthma – bronchial tree becomes irritated causing breathlessness, wheezing and coughing Lung cancer – uncontrolled cell division in the lungs that is often caused by smoking and can lead to death |
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Describe the kidneys.
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2 bean-shaped, fist-sized organs where urine is formed.
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Describe the ureters.
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2 small, muscular tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
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Describe the bladder.
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1 expandable organ that stores urine until it is expelled from the body.
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Describe the urethra.
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1 tube (longer in men than women) that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.
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What are the functions of the urinary system?
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1. Excretion of metabolic wastes
2. Maintenance of water-salf balance 3. Maintenance of acid-base balance 4. Hormone secretion: renin and erythopoietin (EPO) 5. Reabsorb filtered nutrients and convert vitamin D. |
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Describe excretion.
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Mostly of nitrogenous wastes:
-Urea made by the breakdown of amino acids in the liver -Uric acid made by the breakdown of nucleotides -Creatine made by muscle cells from the breakdown of creatine phosphate |
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Maintenance of water-salt and acid-base balance.
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-Both are homeostatic mechanisms.
-Water-salt balance helps to maintain blood pressure -The kidneys by excreting hydrogen ions and reabsorbing the bicarbonate ions, this acid-base balance helps maintain a blood pH of 7.4 |
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What is hormone secretion?
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-Renin is secreted by the kidneys to allow the adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone to help regulate water-salt balance.
-Erythropoietin is secreted by the kidneys to stimulate red blood cell production when blood oxygen is low. |
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Reabsorption filtered nutrients and convert vitamin D.
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The urinary system is responsible for reabsorbing filtered nutrients.
Vitamin D is a molecule that promotes calcium absorption from the digestive tract. |
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Anatomy of a nephron.
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Glomerulus
Proximal convoluted tubule Loop of nephron Distal convoluted tubule Collecting ducts |
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What is the glomerulus of the nephron?
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A knot of capillaries inside the glomerular capsule where pores produce a blood filtrate.
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What is the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron?
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Epithelial layer with a brush border of microvilli to allow reabsorption of filtrate components.
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What is the loop of nephron?
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U-shaped structure that has a descending limb to allow water to leave and an ascending limb that pushes out salt.
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What is the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron?
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Made of epithelial cells rich in mitochondria and thus is important for movement of molecules from the blood to the tubule (tubular secretion).
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What are the collecting ducts of the nephron?
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Several nephrons share a collecting duct which serve to carry urine to the renal pelvis.
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What are the 3 processes in the formation of urine?
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Glomerular filtration
Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion |
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What glomerular filtration?
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Water and small molecules move from the glomerulus to the glomerular capsule while large molecules and formed elements remain in the glomerular blood.
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Describe tubular reabsorption and secretion.
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Many molecules and ions are reabsorbed from the nephron into the blood.
A second way to remove substances such as drugs, H+ and creatine from the blood. |
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How is blood volume and pressure maintained the kidneys?
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Reabsorption of salt
Establishment of solute gradient Reabsorption of water |
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Describe reabsorption of salt in the kidneys.
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Increases the blood volume.
-Aldosterone promotes the excretion of K+ and the reabsorption of Na+ -Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) secreted by the heart when blood volume increases and inhibits the secretion of aldosterone which promotes the excretion of Na+ |
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Describe the establishment of solute gradient in the kidneys.
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A greater concentration is towards the inner medulla.
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Describe reabsorption of water in the kidneys.
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Due to the solute gradient water leaves the descending limb of the loop of the nephron then antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the pituitary plays a role in water reabsorption at the collecting duct.
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What organs are responsible for maintaining blood pH?
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Kidneys
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Kidney disorders
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Urethritis- localized infection of the urethra
Cystitis- infection in the bladder Pyelonephritis- infection of the kidneys Kidney stones Uremia- high levels of urea and other waste substances in the blood that causes a serious condition when water and salts are retained due to extensive nephron damage. |
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What are the functions of the skeletal system?
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1. Supports the body
2. Protects the soft body parts 3. Stores minerals (calcium and phosphate) and fat 5. Allows for movement by attaching muscles |
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What are the 3 types of cartilage?
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1. Hyaline
2. Fibrocartilage 3. Elastic |
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Describe hyaline cartilage.
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Ends of long bones, noes, ends of ribs, larynx, and trachea.
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What are the important cells in bone growth, remodeling, and repair?
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-Osteoblasts = bone-forming cells
-Osteocytes = mature bone cells the maintain bone structure derived from osteoblasts -Osteoclasts = bone-absorbing cells -Chrondroytes = cartilage-forming cells |
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How does bone develop?
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Ossification = the formation of bone in 2 distinct ways
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What are the 2 way of ossification? Describe.
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Intramembranous ossification = bone development between sheets of fibrous connective tissue; used in flat bones.
Endochondiral ossification = cartilage is replaced by bone; used by most bone |
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How do hormones affect bone growth?
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-Growth hormone (GH) = stimulates general bone growth and the Epiphyseal plates
-Sex Hormones = increases growth during adolescence -Vitamin D = converted to a hormone to allow calcium absorption in the intestine |
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How is calcium in the blood stream regulated by hormones?
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-Parathyroid hormone (PTH) = increases blood calcium by accelerating bone recycling
-Calcitonin = decreases blood calcium |
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What is bone remodeling and what is its role in homeostasis?
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-Bone remodeling = bone renewal at a rate of up to 18% per year
-Remodeling allows bones to respond to stress -Regulates the calcium in the blood through PTH and calcitonin hormones. |
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Describe the steps in bone repair.
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-Hematoma (6-8 hrs.) = blood clot formed between broken bones
-Fibrocartilaginous callus (3 weeks) = cartilaginous callus forms between broken bones (builds cartilage where break was) -Bony callus (3-4 months) = cartilaginous callus is turned to bone (body turns cartilage into bone) -Remodeling = old bone tissue is replaced by new bone tissue. |
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Is the bone stronger or weaker after broken?
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-After full repair, the bone is stronger than before. The body overcompensates with extra cartilage and bone (often forming a small bump) to ensure the bone will not break again.
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What are the best bones for determines gender of skeletons?
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-Gender = pelvic bone is best used, thickness of long bones, skull characteristics
How many types of vertebrae are there? Name the ones you have to know for the test. -33 types; know 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar. |
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What is in between each vertebra?
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-Fibrocartilage
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How many pairs of ribs do you have? What are the types?
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-12 total; 7 pairs true ribs, 3 pairs false ribs, 2 pairs floating ribs.
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Know and describe the types of joints (where bones meet bones).
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-Fibrous = usually immovable such as the sutures between cranial bones
-Cartilaginous = tend to be slightly movable such as the intervertebral disks -Synovial = freely movable joints such as the ball-and-socket hip and shoulder joints and the knee joint |
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Know and describe synovial joints movements.
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-Flexion = decrease in joint angle
-Extension = increase in joint angle -Adduction = body part moves toward midline -Abduction = body part moves away from midline |
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What are the 3 types of muscle?
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-Smooth = involuntary muscle found in hollow organs and vessels
-Cardiac = involuntary muscle found in the heart -Skeletal = voluntary muscle that is attached to the skeleton |
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What are the functions of the skeletal mucles?
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1. Support the body by allowing us to stay upright
2. Allow for movement by attaching to the skeleton 3. Help maintain a constant body temp 4. Assist is movement in the cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels 5. Protect internal organs and stabilize joints |
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How are skeletal muscles arranged?
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Attachments:
-Tendon = connective tissue that connects muscle to bone -Origin = attachment of a muscle on a stationary bone -Insertion = attachment of a muscle on a bone that moves Action: -Antagonistic = muscles that work in opposite pairs -Synergistic = muscles working groups for a common action |
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What are the 2 proteins that make up the sarcomere?
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Myosin = thick filaments shaped like a golf club
Actin = thing filaments |
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Describe the beginning of a muscle contraction (the sliding of filament model).
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1. Never impulses travel down motor neurons to a neuromuscular junction
2. Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the neurons and bind to the muscle fibers 3. This binding stimulates fibers causing calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticula |
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Describe muscle contraction.
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4. Released calcium combines with troponin, a molecule associated with actin
5. This causes the tropomyosin threads around actin to shift and expose myosin binding sites 6. Myosin heads bind to these sites forming cross-bridges 7. ATP bind to the myosin heads and is used as energy to pull the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere = contraction now occurs |
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4 sources of ATP for muscle contraction
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1. Stored in muscle fibers
2. Creatine phosphate pathway (CP) 3. Fermentation 4. Cellular respiration (aerobic) |
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Fast-twitch muscle fibers.
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-Rely on CP and fermentation (anaerobic)
-Designed for strength; light in color -Few mitochondria -Little or no myoglobin -Fewer blood vessels then slow-twitch |
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Slow-twitch muscle fibers.
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-Rely on aerobic respiration
-Designed for endurance -Dark in color -Many mitochondria -Myoglobin -Many blood vessels |
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Homeostasis between skeletal and muscular systems
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-Movement
-Protection -Calcium (stored and released) -Blood cells produced in bone -Maintain body temp |
