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418 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Parenchyma
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Cells that make up functional elements of an organ
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Stroma
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Structural framework of an organ (background tissue)
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What are the basic tissue types?
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Blood
Connective Tissue Epithelium Muscle Nervous Tissue |
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What is used to fix tissue specimens?
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Formalin
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What are the dyes in H&E and what do they stain?
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Hematoxylin- blue, basic dye- stains acids/basophilic structures (e.g. nuclei)
Eosin- red-pink, acidic dyes, stains bases/eosinophilic structures (e.g. proteins) |
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What are the electron dense and electron lucent layers?
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The cell membrane has a tri-layer appearance on EM. Two electron dense layers (hydrophilic, phospholipid heads) are separated by an electron lucent layer (hydrophobic, FA tails).
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What are temperature, saturation of FAs, and cholesterol's effect on fluidity of a membrane?
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Fluidity increases with increases temperature and decreases with saturation of fatty acids (saturation helps them back better, so the membrane gets stiffer). Increase in cholesterol stiffens the membrane and decreases fluidity.
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What is a transducer?
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A membrane protein that initiates an enzymatic reaction following binding with a ligand.
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What are clathrins?
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Receptor proteins located in pits of the cell membrane that aid in receptor-mediated endocytosis.
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What is transcytosis?
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Transport of material across or through the cell via sequential endocytosis followed by exocytosis
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What is nucleoplasm?
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Like cytoplasm, but in the nucleus
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Do prokaryotes have histones?
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No
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What is an axoneme and do prokaryotes or eukaryotes have it?
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Modified structure that allows flagella to move
Eukaryotes have axoneme |
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What are lamp brush chromosomes?
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Active portions of chromosomes that are unraveled so that transcription can take place
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Do the nuclear pore complexes close?
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No
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What is a polyribosome?
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Aggregates of ribosomes and mRNA
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What processes are used to produce ATP?
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Kreb's cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
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What are the folds on the inner membrane of the mitochondria called?
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Cristae
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Where does anaerobic glycolysis take place?
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Cytoplasm
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Where does aerobic respiration take place?
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Mitochondria
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Where are the enzymes of the Kreb's cycle contained?
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mitochonria matrix
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How is most ATP produced?
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Oxidative phosphorylation by cytochromes of the Electron Transport System (in the cristae)
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What are coated vesicles?
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Vesicles that surround and coat proteins for transport between the smooth ER and Golgi.
The coating on the membrane acts as a bar code on the package to make sure the protein gets to where it needs to go. |
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Which side is the forming face of the Golgi? Maturing face?
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Forming face = cis
Maturing face = trans |
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What are vesicles coated in when leaving the trans Golgi?
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Clathrin
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What type of condensing vacuoles are used for long term storage?
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Secretory granules
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Where are lysosomes formed?
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Lysosomes are produced by rER and Golgi
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How are secondary lysosomes formed?
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Primary lysosomes fuse with phagocytic vesicles
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What is a tertiary lysosome?
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Result of the hydrolytitc breakdown from secondary lysosomes. These may be excreted or remain in the cell for life
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What type of cell has very abundant residual bodies?
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Neurons
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What is an endosome?
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Type of endocytic vesicle with acidic pH in lumen
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What is a peroxisome?
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Membrane bound organelle containing oxidative enzymes
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What does a peroxidase contain that a lysosome does not?
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Catalase and peroxidase
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What is an inclusion?
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A non-living component of a cell
e.g. fat droplets, glycogen, pigment granules, viruses |
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What color is melanin? Lipfuscin?
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Melanin- brown/black
Lipofuscin- golden brown granules Lipofuscin sometimes called "old age pigment |
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What are the three main elements of cytoskeleton?
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Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments Microtubules |
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What is the function of microfilaments?
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Maintaining cell shape
Facilitate shape changes during movement |
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What type of cytoskeletal element is actin?
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Microfilament
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What protein links two actin molecules together?
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Filamin
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What is the actin support meshwork of the cell called?
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Cell cortex (terminal web)
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What type of microfilament is found in microvilli and stereocilia?
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Actin
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Why is myosin used for?
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muscle contraction
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What is the most heterogeneous group of cytoskeletal filaments?
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Intermediate filaments
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What are the five major categories of intermediate filaments?
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Cytokeratin
Vimentin Desmin Neurofilament proteins GFAP |
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What is cytokeratin and where is it found?
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Cytokeratin is an intermediate filament.
It is found in epithelial cells and forms tonofibrils. |
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What is Vimentin and where is it found?
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Vimentin is an intermediate filament.
It is found in mesodermal cells (endothelial cells, smooth muscle and neuroectodermal cells) |
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What is desmin and where is it found?
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Desmin is an intermediate filament.
It is unique to muscle cells. |
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What is neurofilament protein and where is it found?
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Neurofilament protein is an intermediate filament.
It is found in nerve cells (neurons). |
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What is GFAP and where is it found?
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GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic proteins) is an intermediate protein.
It is found in glial (support) cells of the nervous system Astrocytes = common example |
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What globular protein subunits make up microtubules and how are they arranged?
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Alpha and beta tubulin arrange in a coiled, spiral patter
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What are microtubules used for?
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Cell movement
Maintenance of cell shape Intracellular transport of substances |
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What proteins attach microtubules to organelles?
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Dynein
Kynesin |
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What ATPase provides every to microtubules?
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Microtubule-associated proteins
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Where are microtubules found?
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Cilia and flagella
Centrioles Basal bodies of cilia Mitotic spindles |
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What is an axoneme?
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9 pairs of microtubules arranges in a circle with 2 in the middle
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In cilia, where does the axoneme come from?
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Axoneme grows from the basal body (which is derived from modified centrioles)
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Where are centrioles located?
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Centrosome
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What do centrioles function in?
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Cell division
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What is a pair of centrioles called?
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diplosome
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What is the microtubule arrangement in centrioles?
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9 triplets of microtubules arranged in a cylinder
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What acts as the nucleation center for microtubules?
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Centrioles
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Which phase of the cell cycle is the longest?
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G1
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What is hypertrophy and when does it occur?
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Increase in cell size
Occurs during G1 |
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What is hyperplasia and when does it occur?
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Increase in cell number
Occurs at the tissue level during mitosis |
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Prior to replication, how many chromatids does a chromosome contain?
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one
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After replication, how many chromatids does a chromosome contain?
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2 chromatids/chromosome
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When does replication of centrioles occur?
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During S phase
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What occurs during G2?
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Synthesis of ATP and tubulin for mitotic spindle
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What are the four stages of mitosis?
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Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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What is karykinesis?
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Nuclear division
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During what phases are the chromosomes condensed?
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S, M, (and G2?)
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What are facilitated dividers?
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Cells that maintain the ability for division with proper stimulus
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What does terminally differentiated mean?
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The cell has lost the capacity to divide
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What occurs during prophase?
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Chromosomes (held together at kinetochore) condense and become visible
Microfilaments and microtubules disaggregate Centrioles migrate to poles of the cell in the form of diplosomes Nuclear membrane and nucleoli disappear |
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What occurs during metaphase?
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Chromosomes line up along equator ("metaphase plate")
Chromosomes attach to microtubules at kineochore |
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What occurs during anaphase?
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Centromeres split apart
Chromosomes migrate to opposite ends of the cell |
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What occurs during telophase?
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Mitotic spindle disaggregates
Nuclear envelope reassembles Cell membrane forms cleavage furrow |
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What is the mitotic index?
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Used to describe the proportion of cells in a tissue in mitosis at a given time
(mitotic figures/HPF (high power field)) Usually less than 1 Important in tumor characterization |
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What does the fusion of gametes produce?
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Zygote
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How is prophase I in meiosis different than prophase in mitosis?
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Homologous pairs of chromosomes form tetrads and cross over
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How is anaphase I in meiosis different from anaphase in mitosis?
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In anaphase I, the centromeres do NOT split (makes
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What stage are egg cells frozen at until they are used?
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Prophase I
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What is pyknosis?
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Condensation of nuclear chromatin and shrinkage of nucleus. Occurs at the beginning of Apoptosis
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What is autolysis?
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When lysosomes release catalytic enzymes into the cytoplasm. It results in the cytoplasm becoming bright pink
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Why does a cell swell during apoptosis?
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Loss of ATP pump function results in an accumulation of sodium in the cell. This attracts water, which floods the cell.
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How is the final pathway in apoptosis initiated and what does it cause?
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Caspace Cascade
Reults in Karyolysis (chromatin breaks down) and Karyorhexis (nuclear material disintegrates) |
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What is another name for the nuclear debris from apoptosis?
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Apoptotic bodies
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Where does RBC production occur in each trimester of pregnancy in the fetus?
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1st trimester- "blood islands" in wall of yold
2nd trimester- liver and lymphatic tissue Last month of pregnancy- bone marrow |
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What is serum?
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Plasma (liquid portion) minus clotting factors
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What are albumins?
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Plasma proteins (make up the bulk of plasma proteins)
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Where are albumins synthesized?
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Liver
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What is the function of albumins?
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Transport proteins for insoluble metabolites
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What plasma protein is responsible for maintaining colloid osmotic pressure in blood vessels?
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Albumins
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What are globulins?
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Plasma protein
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What are globulins used for?
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Used as transport proteins for lipids and heavy metal ions
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What is the most common type of globulin?
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Immunoglobulin
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What are the largest blood proteins
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Fibrinogens
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Where are fibrinogens synthesized?
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Liver
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What is fibrinogen's insoluble form?
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Fibrin
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How is fibrinogen activated?
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Prothromin is converted to thrombin
Thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen to fibrin |
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What are the formed elements of the blood?
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Red blood cells
White blood cells Platelets |
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What is PCV?
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Packed cell volume
hematocrit +/- buffy coat |
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What is hematocrit?
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Volume of RBCs
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What is the buffy coat?
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WBC's + platelets
1-2% |
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What method is used to stain blood smears?
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Romanovsky method
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What is the diameter of erythrocytes?
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6-8 um
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What is the primary structural protein in RBCs?
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Spectrin
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What does spectrin do?
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Primary structural protein in RBCs
Provides resiliency and deformability Binds to plasma membrane and links actin and other proteins under the membrane |
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Is hemoglobin a pigment?
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Yes
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What does sickle cell anemia do to hemoglobin?
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Changes the 3D structure
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What is a Howell-Jolly body?
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Basophilic nuclear remnants visible within cytoplasm of RBC
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What are reticulocytes?
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Immature RBC's with stippled cytoplasm
Slightly larger than mature RBCs Commonly associated with hemolitic anemias |
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What is reticulocytosis?
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Increase in number of reticulocytes in circulation associated with chronic blood loss
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What is a left shift?
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Hemolytic anemia
Shift towards immature RBCs (Reticulocytosis) |
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What happens to cells with iron deficient anemia?
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RBCs are small (microcytic) and pale staining (hypochromatic)
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How do RBCs make ATP?
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Via anaerobic glycolysis
They have no mitochondria, so they cannot use aerobic respiration |
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What removes senescent RBCs from circulation?
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Liver and spleen
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What are thrombocytes?
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Platelets
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What are megakaryocytes?
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Large cells with single, multi-lobed nucleus
Form platelets |
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What are the two coagulation pathways?
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Extrinsic (faster, result of tissue damage)
Intrinsic (slower, result of exposed collagen) |
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How is the extrinsic clotting pathway initiated?
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By the release of tissue thromboplastin (found in cells)
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How is the intrinsic clotting pathway initiated?
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By the exposure of collagen
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What do platelets do in the clotting pathway?
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Adhere to exposed collagen
Release serotonin (vasoconstrictor) Form plug Draw to site by cytokines |
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What is the pathway where the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge?
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Common pathway
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What factor starts the common pathway?
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X
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What are the steps of the common pathway?
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Factor X helps convert prothrombin to thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin Traps platelets and RBCs |
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What are some anticoagulants used in our blood?
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Antithrombin III
Heparin Exhaustion of fibrinogen and removal of thrombin also helps stop clotting |
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What is deficient in Hemophilia A, B and C?
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A- Factor VIII
B- Factor IX C- Factor XI |
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How do leukocytes leave circulation?
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Margination
Pavementing Diapedesis (extravasation) |
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What attracts white blood cells?
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Chemotaxis (cells let of cytokines)
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Which white blood cells have primary granules?
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BOTH granulocytes and agranulocytes
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What color do primary granules stain?
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Blue-purple
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What do primary granules contain?
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Lysosomal enzymes (such as acid hydrolases)
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What do granulocytes pocesses?
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Specific granules (secondary granules)
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What do secondary granules possess?
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Lysozyme and alkaline phosphatases
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What are the different types of granulocytes and what do they have in common (as seen on slides)?
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Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
They all have single, multilobed nuclei and prominent cytoplasmic granules |
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What is the most common granulocyte?
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Neutrophil
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How many lobes does a neutrophil nucleus contain?
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3-5 lobes
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How long can neutrophils live in tissue?
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Several hours to days
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How do most neutrophils make energy?
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Anaerobic glycolysis (they can work in oxygen deprived environments)
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What special antimicrobial do primary granules of neutrophils contain?
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Myeloperoxidase
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Why were neutrophils names as such?
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They have both acidic and basic granules, so they are considered neutral.
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What are contained in the secondary granules of neutrophiles?
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Inflammatory mediators and complement activators (such as proteases, defensins, lactoferrin, lysozyme)
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What is contained in tertiary granules of neutrophils?
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Gelatinase (breaks down collagen and allows them to squeeze through spaces)
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What type of infection are neutrophils associated with?
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Acute (several days)
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How do neutrophils move?
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Amoeboid movement
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What is the primary function of neutrophils?
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Phagocytosis
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What process enhances phagocytosis?
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Opsonization (coating bacteria with Ab)
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What is respiratory burst?
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Neutrophils killing bacteria by generating hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorous acid
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What type of WBC are barr bodies often visible in?
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Neutrophils
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What is the least common WBC?
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Basophils
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What is the circulating equivalent of mast cells?
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Basophils
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What are basophils called once they enter tissue?
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Mast cells
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What is the lifespan of mast cells?
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probably days (though uncertain)
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What type of granules do basophils have?
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Primary
Large basophilic secondary granules |
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What is the least common WBC?
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Basophils
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What is the circulating equivalent of mast cells?
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Basophils
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What are basophils called once they enter tissue?
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Mast cells
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What is the lifespan of mast cells?
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probably days (though uncertain)
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What type of granules do basophils have?
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Primary
Large basophilic secondary granules |
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What do basophil secondary granules contain?
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Hydrolytic enzymes
Heparin sulfate Condroitin sulfate Histamine Leukotrienes |
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What is degranulation?
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Release of granule content into ECS
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What type of WBC is used in type I hypersensitivity reactions?
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Basophils
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How long do eosinophils remain in circulation before entering tissue? How long do they remain in tissue?
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3-6 hours
8-12 days in tissue |
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What do eosinophilic specific granules contain?
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Hydrolytic enzymes (histaminase, eosinophil peroxidase, lysosomal enzymes, major basic protein)
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What WBS counteracts the effects of basophils?
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Eosinophils
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How long are monocytes present in the blood stream?
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2-3 days
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What are monocytes in tissue called?
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Macrophages
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What are macrophages lifespan?
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several months
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What are macrophages main function?
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Phagocytosis
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What type of infection are macrophages active in?
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Subacute to chronic (7-10 days to 2 weeks)
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What happens when macrophages try to phagocytose something that is too big?
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They fuse together to become epitheliod giant cells to wall off the item they are trying to digest
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What are macrophages function in lymphoid organs?
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Antigen presenting cells
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What type of infections are lymphocytes active in?
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Subacute to chronic (1 week-10 days--> >10 days)
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What is the lifespan of a lymphocyte?
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days to years
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Which type of WBC has two size classes?
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Lymphocytes
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What type of WBC are T and B cells?
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Lymphocytes
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Why type of immunity do B cells function in?
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Humorally mediated immunity (antibodies)
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What is a B cell called while it is producing antibodies?
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Plasma Cell
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If a B cell cannot make antibodies to an antigen, what is its function?
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Antigen presenting
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What type of immunity do T cells participate in?
|
Cell mediated immunity
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What type of receptors do T cells have on their surface and what do they do?
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Paratopes
Recognize epitopes of antigens |
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What are the three types of T-cells?
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Cytotoxic (killer)
Suppressor Helper |
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How do cytotoxic T cells do their job?
|
They recognize cells with foreign surface antigens and kill them by punching holes in their plasma membranes
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What is the job of Helper T cells?
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Recognize antigen and sound the chemical alarm to stimulate b cells (to produce antibodies) or killer t cells
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What do suppressor T cells do?
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Suppress activity of b-cells, especially to self molecules
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What do null cells do?
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Nonspecific cytotoxicity (e.g. against virus infected or tumor cells)
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What is the relative concentration of WBCs?
|
Neutrophil, Lymphocyte, Monocyte, eosinophil, basophil
(Never let monkeys eat bananas) |
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What is a CBC?
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Complete blood count (absolute number of WBCs)
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What is a differential cell count?
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Relative percentage of WBCs
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What is primitive connective tissue derived from?
|
Mesodermal mesenchyme
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What do fibroblasts synthesize?
|
Proteinaceous ground substances and connective tissue fibers (collagen, elastin, reticular fibers)
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What do reticular cells synthesize?
|
Reticular fibers (made of reticulin)
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What function might reticular cells have that a regular fibroblast may not?
|
Phagocytic function
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What is the function of adipocytes?
|
Storage and metabolism of lipids
|
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What is the most common type of collagen?
|
Type I collagen
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What does type I collagen do?
|
Connective tissue of skin, tendons, ligaments, bone and fibrocartilage
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Where is type II collagen found?
|
Hyaline cartilage and elastic cartilage
|
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What is type II collagen composed of?
|
Reticulin fibers
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Where is type IV collagen found?
|
Basement membrane
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What type of molecule is collagen?
|
glycoprotein
|
|
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What is collagen initially synthesized as?
|
Procollagen, which forms a triple helix
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What is formed when procollagen is secreted into the extracellular space?
|
Enzymatic modifications form tropocollagen from procollagen
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|
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How is collagen formed from tropocollagen?
|
Polymerization of tropocollagen into larger bundles results in formation of collagen microfibrils, which combine to form fibers, which combine to form bundles
|
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Map out collagen synthesis
|
procollagen --> tropocollagen --> collagen microfibrils --> collagen fiber --> collagen bundles
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What are the two components of elastic fibers?
|
Elastin and Fibrillin
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What fibers are abnormal in Marfan's syndrome?
|
Elastic
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Where is fibronectin found and what is its function?
|
Basement membranes
Aids in adhesion between cell membrane and ECM via integrins |
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What are laminin, entactin and tenascin related to?
|
Basement membranes
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What is ground substance made of?
|
Long, unbranched polysaccharide chains of repeating disaccharide units
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What is Ehlers-Danlose syndrome?
|
Problem with GAGs in ECM
Characterized by hyperextensibility of joints (because there is a problem with ground substance) |
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What are the five types of GAGs and where is each found?
|
Hyaluronic acid (connective tissue)
Chondroitin sulfate (cartilage and bones) Keratan sulfate (cartilage, bone, cornea, intervertebral disk) Dermatan sulfate (dermis of skin, blood vessels, heart valves) Heparan suflate (basement membrane, lung, liver) |
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What GAG is predominant in loose connective tissue?
|
Hyaluronic acid
|
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Which GAG is an impervious barrier to microorganisms?
|
Hyaluronic acid found in ground substance
|
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What are the forms of connective tissue?
|
Loose (areolar)
Dense Specialized |
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Where is loose (areolar) connective tissue found?
|
Beneath epithelia, nerves and vessels
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What are the two types of dense connective tissue?
|
Regular and irregular
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How are collagen fibers arranged in regular connective tissue?
|
Parallel to one another
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How are collagen fibers arranged in irregular connective tissue?
|
Randomly
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What are considered specialized connective tissues?
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Bone, blood, cartilage, adipose tissue, hematopoietic tissue, and lymphatic tissue
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What type of cells does adipose tissue contain and what are they derived from?
|
Adipose tissue contains adipocytes which are derived from lipoblasts
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What are the functions of adipose tissue?
|
Energy storage
Thermoregulation Shock absorber |
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Where is white fat found?
|
Dermas and around intraperitoneal organs
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What is the main purpose of brown fat?
|
Thermoregulation (lots of mitochondria = heat)
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What type of pigment is vitamin A?
|
Carotinoid pigment (fat turns rosy/pink with vitamin A)
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What is a mucous membrane?
|
Epithelial tissue that lines cavities that connect with the outside world
|
|
|
What are the three epithelial types?
|
Mucous membrane, serous membrane, endothelium
|
|
|
What is a serous membrane?
|
Epithelium that lines closed body cavities (LACKS muscularis mucosa)
|
|
|
What is endothelium?
|
Epithelium that lines blood vessels
|
|
|
What does the basement membrane provide?
|
Structural suppose
Scaffolding for growth, differentiation, and migration of cells |
|
|
What are the major components of the basement membrane?
|
GAG's (heparan sulfate)
Type IV collagen Structural glycoproteins (laminin, fibronectin, entactin) |
|
|
What are the layers on the basement membrane which show up on EM?
|
Lamina lucida (electron lucent)
Lamina densa (electron dense) Lamina reticularis (electron lucent) |
|
|
How is the basal lamina anchored to underlying connective tissue?
|
Microfibrils of type IV collagen
|
|
|
/what are the three functional types of cell junctions?
|
Occluding
Adhering Communicating |
|
|
What is another name for occluding junctions?
|
Tight junctions
|
|
|
Where are occluding junctions found?
|
Immediately beneath the luminal surface of simple columnar epithelia
|
|
|
What is the purpose of occluding junctions?
|
Prevent fluid from leaking around cells
|
|
|
True or False: Portions of opposing cell membranes fuse together in occluding junctions?
|
True
|
|
|
What is another name for adhering junctions?
|
Anchoring junctions
|
|
|
What is the purpose of adhering junctions?
|
Bind cells together and act as anchoring points for the cell cytoskeleton
|
|
|
What is a zonula adherens?
|
Continuous band characterized by glycoproteins called cadherins
Kind of like velcro |
|
|
True or False: In adhering junctions, adjacent cell membranes fuse together
|
False
|
|
|
What is a macula adherens?
|
A type of adhering junction that holds cells together at a small point- really, a tiny zonula adherens
|
|
|
What is another name for macula adherens?
|
Desmosome
|
|
|
What is the most common type of cell function
|
Macula adherens
|
|
|
What is a hemidesmosome?
|
An adhering junction found on the basal surface of the cell ONLY
Anchors cell to basement membrane using integrins |
|
|
What is a junctional complex?
|
Specialized, circumferential, intercellular connection
Hybrid between adhering and occluding junctions Three separate zones (Zonula occludens, zonula adherens, macula adherens) |
|
|
What is another name for a communicating junction?
|
Gap junction
|
|
|
What is a communicating junction?
|
circular, intercellular contact area with channels in it (connexons(
|
|
|
What are the proteins and rings of communicating junctions called?
|
Rings- connexons
Proteins- connexins |
|
|
What are microvilli and what type of filament do they contain?
|
Finger-like cytoplasmic projection containing actin
|
|
|
Where are stereocilia found?
|
Epididymis of males and sensory cells of inner ear
|
|
|
What are cilia and what type of filament do they contain?
|
Long, motile, cytoplasmic extensions containing microtubules in a "9+2" arrangement
|
|
|
Where does each cilium arise from?
|
Basal body (which develops in centrioles)
|
|
|
What is metachronal rhythm?
|
Combination of effective stroke and recovery stroke
Like the wave in a football stadium |
|
|
What is dynein's role in cilia?
|
To allow the microtubules to slide past one another
|
|
|
What is Kartagener's syndrome?
|
causes sterility in males and situs inversus (heart on wrong side)
Due to absense of ciliary action |
|
|
What are the three criteria which epithelial are classified according to?
|
Number of cell layers
Shape of cell (at epithelial surface) Surface specializations |
|
|
What does simple, stratified, and pseudostratified mean?
|
Simple- 1 layer of cells
Stratified- 2 or more cell layers Pseudostratified- looks stratified but isn't (all cells rest on basement membrane, but not all reach epithelial surface) |
|
|
What is squamous, cuboidal, and columnar?
|
Squamous- w>h
Cuboidal- w~d~h Columnar- h>w |
|
|
What are glands classified based on?
|
Morphology (shape), type of secretory product, mode of discharge
|
|
|
What is a serous demilunes?
|
In mixed ducts, serous acini pushes right up next to mucous acini
|
|
|
What characterizes endocrine glands?
|
Lack ducts
Secrete products directly into bloodstream |
|
|
What characterizes exocrine glands?
|
Secretes product onto epithelial surface via ducts
Contain specialized contractile cells (myoepithelial cells) |
|
|
What are myoepithelial cells?
|
Specialized contractile cells in exocrine glands
|
|
|
What are goblet cells?
|
Specialized unicellular exocrine glands
Have a little opening continuous with epithelium so the secretions can get to the epithelial layer |
|
|
What is merocrine discharge?
|
Only the secretory product is released- involves simple exocytosis
|
|
|
What is the most common form of discharge?
|
Merocrine
|
|
|
What is apocrine discharge?
|
Secretory products accomanpied by some cytoplasm
|
|
|
What is holocrine discharge?
|
Entire cell secreted
Ruptures, releases contents |
|
|
What is muscule cytoplasm called?
|
sarcoplasm
|
|
|
What is muscle plasma membrane called?
|
Sarcolemma
|
|
|
What are the three types of muscle?
|
Skeletal
Smooth Cardiac |
|
|
True or False: Each muscle fiber can contract part way
|
False- each muscle fiber exhibits an all or non response
|
|
|
What determines the strength of an overall muscle contraction? What is this called?
|
Total number of muscle fibers contracting at any given time
Called graded response |
|
|
What is a motor unit?
|
Group of muscle fibers supplied by a single motor neuron
|
|
|
Do all muscle fibers in a motor unit contract together?
|
Yes
|
|
|
Is the size of a motor unit constant?
|
No- smaller motor units = greater fine control
|
|
|
What is recruitment?
|
Increase number of motor units firing within a muscle cell (increases strength of response)
|
|
|
What is a syncitia?
|
Multinucleated skeletal muscle cells
|
|
|
Where are nuclei located in skeletal muscle cells?
|
Periphery
|
|
|
Can skeletal muscle cells divide?
|
No
|
|
|
What is endomysium?
|
Connective tissue surrounding individual muscle fibers
|
|
|
What is a fascicle?
|
Several fibers bound together
|
|
|
What is perimysium
|
Connective tissue which surround many fascicles together (form muscle)
|
|
|
What is epimysium?
|
Connective tissue which surrounds the entire muscle
|
|
|
Where are blood vessels found in muscle?
|
Tend to follow connective tissues (epimysium and perimysium) for support
|
|
|
What are the two types of skeletal muscle fibers?
|
Slow twitch
Fast twitch |
|
|
What is the difference between the innervation of fast twitch and slow twitch skeletal muscle fibers?
|
Fast twitch are innervated by fast neurons
Slow twitch are innervated by slow neurons |
|
|
What type of contractile proteins do fast and slow muscle fibers have?
|
Fast- "fast" myosin
Slow- "slow" myosin |
|
|
Are fast and slow twitch muscle fibers found in the same muscles?
|
Yes, muscles are a checkerboard of fast and slow twitch muscle fiber
|
|
|
Which type of muscle fiber has a large amount of myoglobin?
|
Slow twitch fibers (uses aerobic respiration for oxidative metabolism)
|
|
|
Which type of muscle fiber has a large number of mitochondria?
|
Slow twitch
|
|
|
Which type of muscle fiber is resistant to fatigue?
|
Slow twitch
|
|
|
Which type of muscle fiber generates moderate muscle tension?
|
Slow twitch
|
|
|
What type of muscle fiber is associated with red meat?
|
Slow twitch
|
|
|
What type of muscle fiber has large fibers?
|
Fast twitch
|
|
|
Which type of muscle has less myoglobin and fewer mitochondria?
|
Fast twitch
|
|
|
Which type of muscle fiber uses primarily anaerobic glycolysis?
|
Fast twitch
|
|
|
Which type of muscle fiber has extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum for rapid calcium release?
|
Fast twitch
|
|
|
What type of muscle fiber is associated with white meat?
|
Fast twitch
|
|
|
During peak exertion, what type of muscle fibers metabolize glycogen via anaerobic glycolysis?
|
Both fast and slow twitch
|
|
|
What is rhabdomyolysis?
|
Type I (slow) muscle fibers break down and release myoglobin and stuff into ECS. Lead to kidney failure and death (especially in captured zoo animals)
|
|
|
What is the muscle cell increase in size called?
|
Hypertrophy
|
|
|
What is muscle cell decrease in size called?
|
Atrophy
|
|
|
What is the progressive loss of skeletal muscle fibers?
|
Sarcopenia
|
|
|
How is skeletal muscle regenerated?
|
Satellite cells which differentiate into myoblasts
|
|
|
What are neuromuscular spindles?
|
Muscle spindles located within the belly of muscles sensitive to changes in length
|
|
|
What are neurotendinous spindles?
|
Located within tendons and sensitive to changes in tension
|
|
|
What are individual muscle fibers composed of?
|
Myofibrils
|
|
|
What are myofibrils composed of?
|
Myofilaments (contractile proteins)
|
|
|
What are the two types of myofilaments?
|
Actin (thin filament)
Myosin (thick filament) |
|
|
What is the ratio of actin and myosin present in skeletal muscle?
|
2 actin: 1 myosin
|
|
|
What is the anchoring points for actin in skeletal muscle?
|
Z discs
|
|
|
Where do actin and myosin overlap in skeletal muscle?
|
A band
|
|
|
What is the dilated terminal portion of an axon that is myelinated?
|
Motor end plate
|
|
|
What is the dilated terminal portion of the axon that is unmyelinated?
|
Terminal bouton
|
|
|
What are t-tubules?
|
Gopher holes in skeletal muscle that allows the wave of depolarization to go down into the cell so that calcium can be released in the depths of the cell as well as on the surface
|
|
|
What do t-tubules form with cisternae?
|
Triad
2 cisternae + T-tubule |
|
|
Where is calcium stored in skeletal muscle cells?
|
Sarcoplasmic reticulum and terminal cisternae
|
|
|
What happens when calcium is released in skeletal muscle cells?
|
Calcium causes changes in troponin and tropomyosin which allow actin and myosin to interact
|
|
|
What type of muscle can contract independent of neural input?
|
Smooth muscle
|
|
|
What type of muscle is specialized for prolonged contractions with low force?
|
Smooth muscle
(skeletal muscle for short periods, high force) |
|
|
Which has smaller fibers: smooth muscle or skeletal muscle?
|
Smooth muscle
|
|
|
What ratio are actin and myosin present in in smooth muscle?
|
15:1
|
|
|
What structures act as an attachment site for actin in smooth muscle?
|
Dense bodies
|
|
|
Do smooth muscles have a T-tubule system?
|
No
|
|
|
What are caveolae?
|
Functional equivalent to T-tubules, but they are just little invaginations on cell surface of smooth muscle cells
|
|
|
What does smooth muscle use instead of troponin to control myosin binding?
|
Calmodulin
|
|
|
What type of muscle cells relies on diffusion of extracellular calcium for contration?
|
Smooth muscle
|
|
|
Is sympathetic stimulation excitatory or inhibitory to smooth muscle?
|
Inhibitory
|
|
|
What are the two types of smooth muscle?
|
Single Unit (fibers contract together, most common)
Multi unit (individual muscle fibers contract independently, not very common) |
|
|
Can smooth muscle divide and repair itself?
|
Yes
|
|
|
What are myoepithelial cells?
|
Glandular epithelial cells which contract to secrete product
|
|
|
What is the sac-like connective tissue that surrounds the heart
|
pericardium
|
|
|
What is the inner serous layer of the periccardium made of?
|
Mesothelial cells?
|
|
|
What are the three layers of the heart?
|
Epicardium
Myocardium Endocardium |
|
|
What is the last fat for a starving person to lose?
|
Fat surrounding the heart
|
|
|
What is the connective tissue in the heart primarily composed of?
|
Fibroblasts and collagen
|
|
|
What is it called when the connective tissue ossifies around AV valves?
|
os cordis
|
|
|
What do t tubules and terminal cisterna form in cardiac muscle?
|
Diad (one t tubule and one termianl cisterna)
|
|
|
Where do cardiac muscles meet?
|
Intercalated discs
|
|
|
What type of cell junctions are found in intercalated discs?
|
Desmosomes
Fascia adherens Gap junctions |
|
|
What do t tubules and terminal cisterna form in cardiac muscle?
|
Diad (one t tubule and one termianl cisterna)
|
|
|
What makes up the conduction system of the heart?
|
SA node
AV node Bundle of His Purkinje fibers |
|
|
Where do cardiac muscles meet?
|
Intercalated discs
|
|
|
What coordinates conduction of heart muscle?
|
Myocytes (NOT neurons)
|
|
|
What type of cell junctions are found in intercalated discs?
|
Desmosomes
Fascia adherens Gap junctions |
|
|
What makes up the conduction system of the heart?
|
SA node
AV node Bundle of His Purkinje fibers |
|
|
What coordinates conduction of heart muscle?
|
modified Myocytes (NOT neurons)
|
|
|
What is the pacemaker of the heart and where is it located?
|
SA node
Location at junction of superior vena cava and right atrium |
|
|
Follow the path of the electrical impulse of the heart.
|
SA node --> AV node (between RA and RV, delays impulse) --> travels down IVS via bundle of His --> branches into right and left AV bundles --> purkinje fibers
|
|
|
Where do the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the heart come from?
|
Sympathetic- sympathetic ganglia
Parasympathetic- vagus nerve |
|
|
What is cytoplasm of a neuron called?
|
perikaryon
|
|
|
What is Nissl substance?
|
Rough ER in neurons
|
|
|
Where does the axon arise from?
|
Axon hillock
|
|
|
Where does the axon terminate?
|
Terminal bouton
|
|
|
What are the basic neuron types?
|
Multi-polar (several dendrites)
Bipolar (single dendrite opposite axon) Unipolar (no dendrites, axon only) Pseudounipolar (single dendrite and axon fuse, soma off to one side) |
|
|
What type of neuron is most common?
|
Multi-polar neuron
|
|
|
What separates the terminal bouton and effector cell?
|
Synaptic cleft
|
|
|
What are the two neurotransmitters used in the PNS?
|
Acetylcholine
Norepinephrine |
|
|
What neurotransmitter does the sympathetic division use?
|
Adrenaline (epi)
|
|
|
What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic division use?
|
Acetylcholine
|
|
|
What is tetany?
|
When muscle cells are continuously stimulated, can lead to death
|
|
|
What are the functional divisions of the nervous system?
|
Somatic
Autonomic |
|
|
In the autonomic nervous system, how many neurons connect the CNS to the viscera?
|
Two
|
|
|
What is a ganglia?
|
Discrete aggregations of neuron cell bodies located outside of the CNS
|
|
|
In ganglia, what are cell bodies surrounded by?
|
Satellite cells
|
|
|
Where are prevertebral ganglia located?
|
Anterior to the spine
|
|
|
Where are paravertebral ganglia locationed?
|
Sympathetic trunk
|
|
|
Where are parasympathetic ganglia located?
|
In or near the effector organ
|
|
|
In what type of tissue can the peri- layer be on the outside?
|
Nervous tissue
|
|
|
What layer of connective tissue do blood vessels tend to follow with nerves//.
|
Epi- and peri- neurium
|
|
|
Why are non-myelinated nerves termed as such?
|
Each does not have its own Schwann cell- many share a Schwann cell
|
|
|
What makes a nerve myelinated?
|
The neuron is surrounded by a Sheath of Schwann (or neurilemma), made of a Schwann cell wrapped around many many times
|
|
|
What myelinates cells in the CNS?
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
How do oligodendrocytes differ from Schwann cells?
|
An oligodendrocyte will have extensions around many neurons and is less organized
|
|
|
Which of the follow ions have a higher concentration outside of the cell than inside: Na, Cl, K
|
Na and Cl are higher outside
K is higher inside |
|
|
Is the membrane potential negative inside or outside of the cell?
|
Membrane is negative inside
|
|
|
Track and action potential
|
Reach threshold
Voltage gated Na channels open, Na rushes into cell (makes it more positive) Voltage gated K channels open, K leaks out of the cell (makes it less positive) Cell returns to homeostasis |
|
|
What type of cells are meninges composed of?
|
Meningothelial cells
|
|
|
What are the three layers of the meninges (external to internal)
|
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater Pia mater |
|
|
What supports the dura mater in the spinal cord?
|
Denticulate ligaments
|
|
|
What does the epidural space contain?
|
Fat and connective tissue
|
|
|
What does the subdural space contain?
|
Hopefully nothing, it is a potential space
|
|
|
What are the leptomeninges?
|
Pia + arachnoid maters
|
|
|
What produces cerebrospinal fluid?
|
Choroid plexus
|
|
|
Where is the choroid plexus located?
|
Walls of the ventricle in the brain
|
|
|
What does gray matter contain?
|
Neuron cell bodies, dendrites and axons
|
|
|
What does what matter contain?
|
myelinated axons
|
|
|
Where are the white and gray matter located in the brain?
|
White- inside
Gray- outside |
|
|
How do white and gray matter stain in H&E?
|
White matter stains redder
Gray matter stains pinker |
|
|
What are the support cells in the CNS called?
|
Neuroglia
|
|
|
What are the CNS equivalent of Schwann cells?
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
What are the functions of astrocytes?
|
Structural and metabolic support
Aid in tissue repair Fills spaces between neurons |
|
|
What is the most common type of neuroglial cell in white matter?
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
What is the most common type of neuroglial cell in gray matter?
|
Astrocytes
|
|
|
What are microglia's function?
|
Phagocytic (they are fixed tissue macrophages)
|
|
|
Where do microglia cells originate from?
|
Mesoderm
|
|
|
Where are ependymal cells found?
|
Lining ventricles of gray matter and central canal of spinal cord
|
|
|
What is neocortex?
|
Part of cerebrum that has sensory, motor and association areas. ~90% of cortex in humans
|
|
|
What are gyri?
|
Folds in the cortex
|
|
|
What are tracts?
|
Grouped axon bundles leading in and out of gray matter in the brain
|
|
|
Where is the medulla found?
|
Deep to the white matter
|
|
|
What does the cerebellum do?
|
Coordinates muscular activity, posture and equilibrium
|
|
|
What are the two layers of the cerebellar cortex?
|
Outer molecular layer (few layers, unmyelinated axons)
Inner granular layer (cellular, basophilic, lots of neuroglial cells, contains granule cells (small neurons) |
|
|
What separates the molecular and granular layers?
|
Purkinje cells
|
|
|
What is found in the central canal?
|
CSF
|
|
|
What lines the central canal?
|
Ependymal cells
|
|
|
What color does CSF stain?
|
Pink- it is high in proteins
|
|
|
How are the white matter and gray matter arranged in the spinal cord?
|
Gray matter is central
White matter is peripheral |
|
|
What is contained in the gray matter of the spinal cord?
|
Neuron cell bodies and axons
|
|
|
How do nerves repair themselves in the PNS?
|
If the gap is not too big, Schwann cells multiply and physcially bridge the gap
Nerve axon sprouts neuritis from the proximal stump Neuritis grow into distal stump (contact reestablishes function) |
|
|
What is anterograde degeneration?
|
Portion of axon distal to the point of injury degenerates
|
|
|
What is retrograde degeneration?
|
Death of a cell body due to sever injury to the nerve
|
|
|
How do nerves repair themselves in the CNS?
|
Neuroglial cells multiply... a lot
Neuroglial cells go overboard and form scar tissue, preventing regeneration |
|
|
What is MS?
|
Multiple sclerosis
An autoimmune, inflammatory, myelination disease of the CNS |
|
|
What is Guillain-Barre disease?
|
Infection causes antibodies to be made, but then it attacks skeletal muscle.
It severe, lose control the breathing muscles and could die |
