Flashcard Set 5 - Neurotransmitters, Endocrine, & Limbic Functions

Front 1

The ____ ____ ____ of the mesencephalon and upper pons function together with diencephalic nuclei to maintain an alert conscious state in the forebrain

Back 1

rostral reticular formation

Hint 1

towards the face pg. 588

Front 2

_____ cell bodies are located in the locus ceruleus and lateral tegmental area, targets the entire CNS and is responsible for alertness and mood elevation

Back 2

norepinephrine

Hint 2

also known as noradrenaline pg. 590

Front 3

-------- is produced in the raphe nuclei , targets the entire CNS and is involved in mood elevation

Back 3

Serotonin

Hint 3

receptors are 5HT1A-F, 5HT2A-C, 5HT3-7 pg. 590

Front 4

Control of the level of consciousness involves these three processes ____, _____, _____.

Back 4

alertness, attention and awareness

Hint 4

AAA pg. 591

Front 5

The pontomesencephalic reticular formations projects to the _____ _____, which has connections with the basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex, are important for maintaining normal alertness

Back 5

thalamic intralaminar nuclei

Hint 5

part of the "bridal chamber" pg. 592

Front 6

what is the major efferent neurotransmitter of the peripheral nervous system?

Back 6

acetylcholine

Hint 6

found in the neuromuscular junction, preganglionic autonomic synapses and postganglionic parasympathetic synapses pg. 593

Front 7

the main cholinergic receptor types in the central nervous system are ____ and ____

Back 7

muscarinic and nicotinic

Hint 7

"nicotine" gives off a "muscy" smell pg. 595

Front 8

____ and ____ together are important in mood disorders such as depression, manic-depression and anxiety

Back 8

norepinephrine and serotonin

Hint 8

produced in the locus ceruleus and the raphe nuclei pg. 597

Front 9

The _______ reticular formation helps to carry out _______, _______, and ________ functions. B588

Back 9

1.Caudal 2.motor, 3.reflex, and 4.autonomic functions.

Hint 9

The lower part of the reticular formation merges with the spinal cord which also helps transmit motor, reflex, and autonomic functions.

Front 10

________ ________ _________ is used to describe pathways that emanate from a single region to innervate many structures or even the entire nervous system? B589

Back 10

Widespread Projection System

Hint 10

Think of a radio station that transmits one signal, but is projected over a wide range.

Front 11

What are the 3 major inputs of the pontomesencephalic reticular formation? B592

Back 11

Sensory pathways, association cortex, and limbic cortex.

Hint 11

If you are driving home on "auto pilot" what could wake you up? Pain (sensory), realizing a car cut you off (frontoparietal association cortex), or hearing a sad song on the radio (limbic cortex).

Front 12

Acetylcholine has two widespread projection systems. Where does each pathway start and end? What is the function of acetylcholine? B590: Table 14.2

Back 12

1. Basal forebrain to the cerebral cortex. 2. Pontomesencephalic region to the thalamus, cerebellum, pons, & medulla. Function = alertness & memory.

Hint 12

Decreased acetylcholine may be associated with memory decline in Alzheimer's disease. B595

Front 13

Where does the norepinephrine widespread projection system start and end? What is its function? B590: Table 14.2 & 596

Back 13

Pons (locus ceruleus and lateral tegmental area) to the entire CNS. Function = modulation of attention, sleep-wake states, alertness, mood elevation

Hint 13

Attention-deficit dx is often treated with meds to enhance norepinephrine transmission. Also, it increases in an awake state and decreases during sleep. B596-7

Front 14

Serotonin has two widespread projection systems that both involve the raphe nuclei of the midbrain and pons. Where does each start and end? What is the function of each pathway? B597 & 590: Table 14.2

Back 14

1. ROSTRAL raphe nuclei to the entire forebrain (cortex, thalamus and basal ganglia); function = mood elevation. 2. CAUDAL raphe nuclei to the cerebellum, medulla and spinal cord; function = pain modulation.

Hint 14

Since the raphe nuclei is in the brain stem serotonin can only travel up or down. Directional terms below the midbrain are: superior=rostral and inferior=caudal. It is best when your mood is up and your pain is down.

Front 15

Where does the major histamine widespread projection system start and end? What is its function? B 597-8

Back 15

Tubermammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus to the entire forebrain; function = alertness

Hint 15

Antihistamine medications used for allergies cause drowsiness by blocking CNS histamine receptors. B598

Front 16

The regions on the medulla that promote sleep are the ____________ and the ______________.

Back 16

medullary reticular formation and the nucleus solitarius

Hint 16

also known as "reticular substance" and the solitary nucleus. Pg. 599

Front 17

What do GABAergic REM-on cells do during REM sleep?

Back 17

inhibit norepinephrine release from thelocus ceruleus and lateral tegmental area, and inhibit serotonin release from the raphe nuclei.

Hint 17

inhibit NE and 5-HT pg. 599

Front 18

Glutamatergic REM-on cells reduce muscle tone during REM sleep. How do they do this and where are the located?

Back 18

they are located in the pontine reticular formation and they activate circuits which involve glycine in the medulla and spinal cord. This inhibits lower motor neurons, which decreases muscle tone.

Hint 18

they activate an inhibitory transmitter pg. 601

Front 19

In a coma, _______________ is typically reduced by 50%.

Back 19

Cerebral Metabolism

Hint 19

This reduction makes sense, considering of the lack of significant cortical functions during coma. Pg. 602

Front 20

in some patients, akinetic mutism can be reversed by using __________________

Back 20

dopaminergic agonists

Hint 20

an agonist for a neurotransmitter that affects arousal levels pg. 603

Front 21

Akinetic mutism is an extreme form of ________________, which often results from frontal lobe lesions.

Back 21

abulia

Hint 21

"without will" pg. 603

Front 22

One way in which nonREM-on cells are located in the anterior hypothalamus and promote nonREM sleep by inhibiting ____________________ that project to the forebrain.

Back 22

histaminergic activating systems

Hint 22

the activating system of an excitatory neurotransmitter pg. 599

Front 23

The pituitary and hypothalamus form the link between what two systems?

Back 23

Neural and endocrine systems.

Hint 23

These two areas communicate through synaptic transmission and utilize soluble hormone factors. Pg. 738

Front 24

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis in the body by interacting with and regulating what four systems?

Back 24

Homeostatic mechanisms, Endocrine control, Autonomic control, and Limbic mechanisms.

Hint 24

Mnemonic: HEAL pg. 738

Front 25

What are the homeostatic mechanisms that that hypothalamus controls?

Back 25

Hunger, thirst, sexual desire, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Hint 25

These are all basic functions that we need to survive. pg. 738

Front 26

mammillary bodies form what structure? B. 738

Back 26

posterior hypothalamus

Hint 26

part of the diencephalon

Front 27

The pituitary fossa is bounded by the ___ ___ ___ and the ___ ___ ___ B. 739

Back 27

anterior clinoid process and the posterior clinoid process

Hint 27

form sella turcica

Front 28

the lateral hypothalamus is important in ___ and the medial hypothalamus is important in___ ___ B. 742

Back 28

appetite, inhibiting appetite

Hint 28

indulgence, will power

Front 29

what structure activates mechanisms in heat dissipation? B. 743

Back 29

anterior hypothalamus

Hint 29

this region can also cause hyperthermia

Front 30

The anterior pituitary produces which six hormones? B. 743

Back 30

adrenocorticotropic hormone, growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone

Hint 30

ACTH, GH, TSH, LG, FSH

Front 31

ACTH simulates? B. 745

Back 31

adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroid hormones

Hint 31

A type of steroid

Front 32

Growth hormone-secreting adenomas cause _____.

Back 32

acromegaly z.747

Hint 32

is characterized by enlarge hands and feet, coarsened facial features and protuberant jaw.

Front 33

in the ____ ____ ____ ____, excess ADH production causes a low serum sodium _______, together with inappropriately elevated urine osmolality

Back 33

1. syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone or SIADH; 2.hyponatremia z. 749

Hint 33

1. can be caused by many non/neurological conditions including head trauma, meningitis, pulonmary disorders, med side effects

Front 34

these symptoms describe what syndrome? 1. truncal obesity 2. increased facial hair 3. new onset acne 4. easily bruisability 5. excessive sweating 6. ruddiness and skin straie 7. amenorrhea 8. hypertension 9. iritability & depression 10. decreased energy 11. diffiuclty walking up stairs

Back 34

cushing's syndrome z. 751

Hint 34

is caused by excess cortical production by the adrenal cortex; can also be caused by pitiutary or extrapituitary hypersecretion of ACTH or adrenal tumors

Front 35

spontaneious hemorrhages of pituitary tumors is called ____ ____

Back 35

pituitary apoplexy z. 750

Hint 35

panhypopituitarism is a common sequela of this

Front 36

____ ____ ____ can be helpful to distinguish pituitary from non pituitary ACTH overproduction.

Back 36

petrosal sinus sampling z. 748

Hint 36

this can often localize the side of the microadenoma not visible on MRI

Front 37

What does the term "panhypopituitarism" mean? (B. Pg. 750)

Back 37

A deficiency of all pituitary hormones.

Hint 37

It "pans" across all the hormones in the pituitary gland.

Front 38

What is a "pituitary adenoma" ? (B. Pg. 746)

Back 38

A slow growing benign tumor arising from glandular epithelial cells in the anterior pituitary.

Hint 38

This type of tumor often secretes hormones in excess of normal levels.

Front 39

Which adenoma causes Cushing's disease (B. Pg. 747)

Back 39

ACTH-secreting adenoma.

Hint 39

Remember that pituitary adenomas often produce hormone levels that are not normal.

Front 40

The _____ _____ _____ stimulates the thyroid gland to produce _____ and ____________. (B. Pg. 746)

Back 40

1. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone 2. thyroxine 3. triiodothyronine.

Hint 40

These hormones promote cellular metabolism.

Front 41

What type of adenoma often causes hypogonadism and infertility? (B. Pg. 749)

Back 41

LH or FSH-secreting adenomas

Hint 41

These two hormones are necessary for reproduction.

Front 42

Deficiency of which pituitary hormone can cause polyuria (the passage of large volumes of urine in a 24 hour period), polydipsia ("many" "thirst") and excessive thirst? (B. Pg. 754-755)

Back 42

Deficiency of Antidiuretic Hormone (Vassopressin).

Hint 42

The hormone is regulates body's retention of water and is released by the posterior pituitary.

Front 43

Deficiency of which pituitary hormone can cause cold intolerance? (B. Pg. 754-755)

Back 43

Deficiency of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.

Hint 43

Promotes cellular metabolism.

Front 44

Where is Antidiuretic Hormone produced? (B. Pg. 753)

Back 44

It is produced in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus.

Hint 44

These two hypothalamic nuclei can be found in the anterior region of the hypothalamus.

Front 45

Name some causes of coma.

Back 45

head trauma, brainstem, ischemia, anoxia, intracranial hemorrhage, hydrocephalus

Hint 45

many conditions we have discussed in class pg. 604

Front 46

Name 5 neurotransmitters located in the projection systems

Back 46

Histamine, Acetylcholine,serotonin, Norepinephrine, dopamine

Hint 46

HANDS pg. 590

Front 47

What are the steriod hormones aldosterone and cortisol important for?

Back 47

blood pressure, electrolyte, balances, glucose mobilizatin

Hint 47

B-E-G pg. 745

Front 48

What hormone is responsible for uterine contractions, and contractions for breast milk

Back 48

Oxytocin

Hint 48

Prolactin is only for milk production pg. 745

Front 49

One function of histamine?

Back 49

Alertness

Hint 49

Day cold medicine
Table 14.2

Front 50

Certain regions of the ________ may also play a role in nonREM sleep.

Back 50

Medulla

Hint 50

Myelencephalon
Figure 14.15

Front 51

Name 2 pituitary hormones?

Back 51

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Growth Hormone (GH)

Hint 51

TSH
GH
Table 17.2

Front 52

Neurotransmitter receptor of reticular formation?

Back 52

Unknown (maybe glutamate)

Hint 52

Unidentified
Table 14.2

Front 53

Main target of histamine?

Back 53

Entire brain

Hint 53

Whole
Table 14.2

Front 54

__________ and __________ are released by the posterior pituitary

Back 54

Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Hint 54

Feel good hormone and kidney water retention or (ADH)
Figure 17.6

Front 55

Name two anterior pituitary hormones?

Back 55

Growth hormone (GH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

Hint 55

GH
TSH
Table 17.2

Front 56

Name the four basic functions of the limbic system

Back 56

1. Homeostatic functions including autonomic and neuroendocrine control 2. Olfaction 3. Memory 4. Emotions and Drives

Hint 56

mnemonic: HOME pg. 762

Front 57

Name the key structures that correspond with each limbic function.

Back 57

Olfaction: Olfactory Cortex, Memory: Hippocampal formation, Emotions and Drives: Amygdala, Homeostasis: Hypothalamus

Hint 57

primary structures of HOME pg. 763

Front 58

What are the regions of the limbic cortex?

Back 58

the cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the medial orbitofrontal gyri, the temporal poles, and the anterior insular cortex

Hint 58

gyri visible from the a medial view pg. 763

Front 59

Where is the hippocampal formation located and what role does it play in the limbic system?

Back 59

It is buried within the medial temporal lobe, forming the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle. Plays an improtant role in memory functions of the limbic system.

Hint 59

located within the lobe associated with auditory processing pg. 763

Front 60

What are the classifications of the cerebral cortex?

Back 60

neocortex, mesocortex, allocortex with 2 subdivisions: archicortex and paleocortex, and corticoid areas

Hint 60

"new" cortex, "middle" cortex, "other" cortex, "first" cortex, "old" cortex pg. 766

Front 61

What are the three main nuclei of the amygdala?

Back 61

corticomedial, basolateral, and central nuclei

Hint 61

names refer to location of nuclei pg. 768

Front 62

Limbic inputs to the basal ganglia arrive at the ventral ________ and _________ ________ and then are relayed via the _______ ________ to the mediodorsal nucleus.

Back 62

Limbic inputs to the basal ganglia arrive at the VENTRAL STRIATUM and NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS and then are relayed via the VENTRAL PALLIDUM to the mediodorsal nucleus.

Hint 62

basil ganglia structure made up of the caudate and the putamen pg. 768

Front 63

The _______ ________ contains cholinergic neurons that provide the major cholinergic innervation for the entire cerebral cortex.

Back 63

nucleus basalis

Hint 63

primary nucleus of the basal forebrain pg. 768

Front 64

What are the main nuclei of the septal region and what are their functions?

Back 64

medial septal nucleus: priamry output- projects to the hippocampal formation, lateral septal nucleaus: receives input from the hippocampal formation

Hint 64

"middle" and "side" nuclei pg.768

Front 65

The structures of the limbic system are located primarily in the______ and ______regions of the cerebral hemispheres.

Back 65

Medial, Ventral

Hint 65

Think of middle and lower pg. 762

Front 66

What is the key structure in memory?

Back 66

Hippocampal formation

Hint 66

pg. 763

Front 67

What is the key structure in homeostasis?

Back 67

Hypothalamus

Hint 67

This stucture is anterior to the thalamus pg. 763

Front 68

Emotions and drives are regulated by the ________.

Back 68

Amygdala

Hint 68

Located in the aneromedial temporal lobe pg. 763

Front 69

The hippocampal formation has ___ layers and is called _________.

Back 69

3, archicortex

Hint 69

"archi" cortex stands for "first" pg. 764

Front 70

Limbic imputs to the basal ganglia arrive at the________ and ________.

Back 70

ventral striatum, nucleus accumbens

Hint 70

Think of lower striatum pg. 768

Front 71

The structures of the ________ ________ lie just anterior and lateral to the hypothalams, at the base of the frontal lobes.

Back 71

Basal forebrain

Hint 71

pg. 768

Front 72

Name 4 of the main components of the limbic system.

Back 72

Limbic cortex, hippocampal formation, amygdala, olfactory cortex, diencephalon, basal ganglia, basal forebrain, septal nuclei, brainstem.

Hint 72

One of these is named for its almond shape; another consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus. (B, p. 762)

Front 73

Name 2 structures in the limbic system that the brainstem connects with.

Back 73

Hippocampal formation, basal ganglia, septal area and basal forebrain, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Hint 73

Remember the lower thalamus and the “robins’ eggs.” (B. p. 762)

Front 74

Name 2 structures that the limbic cortex connects with.

Back 74

Olfactory cortex, septal area and basal forebrain, amygdala, thalamus/epithalamus, hippocampal formation, and basal ganglia.

Hint 74

One of these regions has to do with the sense of smell; another is known as the “grand central station” of the brain. (B. p. 762)

Front 75

This term is also known as the limbic cortex.

Back 75

Mesocortex

Hint 75

Forms gradual transition between 3 and 6-layered cortex. (B. p. 766)

Front 76

In the adult sleep cycle, how many stages exist and name some of them?

Back 76

There are 5 sleep cycles numbered as stages 1 through 5 .

Hint 76

"Counting sheep was cool until I was 5.

Front 77

What does REM stand for and what usually happens during this stage of sleep?

Back 77

Rapid Eye Movement ( which dreaming typically happens during this stage,)

Hint 77

The music group REM usually makes my eyes roll into the back of my head and puts me to sleep B p. 598

Front 78

What is polysomnographic monitoring of multiple physiological parameters.

Back 78

Process of recording and score basing sleeping stages which include EEG, extraocular movement, body movement, muscle tone, and respirations.

Hint 78

"While I am sleeping my brain waves move fast, just like my eyes and body. Sometimes my muscles tone is different I sure hope I am breathing while I sleep.

Front 79

Adenosine neurotransmitters are located in both ___________, and the _____________. The effects of adenosine are generally ____________.

Back 79

Thalami, Cortex, and
Inhibitory

Hint 79

adenosine is the neurotransmitter system affected by coffee

Front 80

Manifestations of _____________________ of any cause include lethargy, depression, cold intolerance, weight gain, constipation, hair loss, and smooth dry skin.

Back 80

hypOthyroidism

Hint 80

a lack of a hormone stimulated by TSH. p749

Front 81

Nervousness, insomnia, sometimes mania and/or dementia in the elderly, weight loss, increased sweating, dyskinesias, and tremor can be caused by ________________________.

Back 81

HypERthyroidism

Hint 81

can be caused either by complete suppression of TSH or elevation of TSH. p748

Front 82

___________________ is a global confusional state along the continuum of impaired alertness.

Back 82

delirum

Hint 82

also along the continuum is dementia. p603

Front 83

What is meant by status epilepticus?

Back 83

continuous seizure activity

Hint 83

the state of having "an epileptic fit" p.603

Front 84

Name disorders that can cause a pseudocoma

Back 84

catatonia, dissociative states from severe emotional trauma, somatiform disorders such as conversion disorder or somatization disorder or factitious disorder p.604

Hint 84

five of them