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65 Cards in this Set
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Plato (428-347 BC)
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Believed knowledge was "innate", and that experience unlocked already learned information (like Rosseau). Also believed schools and parents had responsibility to at once teach children self-control, but not stifle their creativity.
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Aristotle (384-322 BC)
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Believed knowledge came from experience, and children acquire knowledge piece by piece from their sense (like Locke). Schools and parents had responsibility to teach child self discipline, but not so much as to stifle their creativity.
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John Locke (1632-1704)
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An enlightenment philosopher who believed children were born with a "blank slate" (tabula rasa), and that experience molds the infant (like Aristotle). Believed parents should instruct, reward, and discipline young children, gradually relaxing authority as children grow.
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Jean Jacques Rosseau (1712-1778)
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A French philosopher who believed that newborns are endowed with an innate sense of justice and morality that unfolds naturally as children grow (like Plato). Instead of emphasizing parental discipline, he argue that parents should be responsive and receptive to their child's needs.
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The Industrial Revolution's impact on the study of Child Devolopment
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the children during the 1700s Industrial Revolution often worked long hours in dangerous conditions. Reformers worked to enact laws to help these children and made the well being of children a national concern.
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Charles Darwin's impact on Developmental Psych studies
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Theory of natural selection prompted many scientists to write baby biographies, that paved the way for objective, analytic research.
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Baby Biographies
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Prompted by Darwin's theories, these were detailed, systematic observations of individual children (case studies). Though these studies had flaws (bias, non conclusive) they paved the way for analytic research in developmental psych.
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G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
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A leading developmental scientist who used evolutionary theory to generate theories in child development. He also founded the 1st scientific journal in english, the child study institute at Clark University, and was 1st president of the American Psychological Association (APA).
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The Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD)
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Founded in 1933. Its members were experts linked by common interest in discerning conditions that would promote a child's welfare and foster development. Is now the main proffesional organization for child devo. researchers.
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World War II effects on Developmental Psych study
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Halted progress as developmental researchers abandoned their studies to aid in the war effort. But by the 1950s and 1960s research was thriving.
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Applied Developmental Science
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A branch of developmental research that uses developmental research to promote healthy development, particularly for vulnerable children and families. Scientists in this field contribute to sound family policy by reviewing government policy, serving as advocates for children, and evaluating government policy already in place.
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What two events set the stage for the creation of child development as a science?
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The Industrial Revolution and the Theory of Natural Selection as postulated by Charles Darwin
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Who were the leaders of the newly founded filed of child development before the formation of the SRCD?
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G. Stanley Hall, France Alfred Binet, Sigmund Freud, and John B. Watson.
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Theory
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In child development, a theory is an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain and make predictions about development. Theories beget hypotheses, and are reformed and improved upon.
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Charles Darwin's impact on Developmental Psych studies
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Theory of natural selection prompted many scientists to write baby biographies, that paved the way for objective, analytic research.
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The Biological Perspective
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The psychological view that intellectual and personality development, as well as physical and motor development, are rooted in biological (organic) systems.
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Maturational Theory
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A biological perspective theory proposed by Arnold Gessel (1880-1961). According to this theory, child development reflects a specific and pre-arranged scheme or plan within the body. Development is a natural unfolding of of a biological plan and experience matters little (view shared by Plato and Rosseau). This theory was discarded because it had little to say about the impact of the environment on maturation.
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Ethological Theory
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A biological perspective theory that views development from and evolutionary perspective. Behaviors are adaptive and inherited to promote survival. Believe that learning occurs only at certain stages, called critical periods.
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Critical Period
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(part of bio persp. ethological theory) The time in development when a specific type of learning can take place. This type of learning is harder or impossible before or after this period.
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Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989)
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A zoologist who noticed that newly hatched chicks follow their mother about. Discovered that they are biologically programmed to follow the first moving object that they see (they imprint upon this object as the mother).
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Imprinting
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creating an emotional bond upon sight. famous example: Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) and his chicks.
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The Psychodynamic Perspective
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The oldest perspective on child devo, originating in the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). This theory holds that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages. Development is determined primarily by how a child resolves conflicts at different ages.
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conflicts
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The id, the ego, and the superego
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id: a reservoir of primitive instincts and drives; doing whatever we want. ego: the practical, rational component of personality; doing something not to get punished or to be rewarded. superego: the "moral agent", knowing the difference between right and wrong.
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Erikson's psychosocial theory
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Psychodynamic theory proposed by Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Says that development consists of a sequence of stages, each defined by a unique crisis or challenge.
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The Learning Perspective
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the learning perspective emphasizes the role of experience in a child's development (like Locke and Aristotle). John Watson (1878-1958) was the first theorist to apply this approach to child devo, and argued that learning determines what children will be. Development is influenced largely by the child's environment.
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Behaviorism
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Operant Conditioning
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Where consequences of a behavior determine whether the behavior is repeated in the future. Two kinds of consequences, reinforcement and punishment, are especially influential.
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Reinforcement
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A consequence that increased the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows. Positive reinforcement involves giving a reward, negative reinforcement involves taking a punishment away.
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Punishment
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A consequence that decreases the future likelihood of the behavior that follows. Positive punishment involves adding something aversive, and negative punishment involves removing something pleasant.
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Imitation or Observational Learning
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Behaviors that are not learned by association, but through watching those around them.
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Social Cognitive Theory
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A Learning perspective theory. Proposed by Albert Bandura (1925-present). More complex view of reward, punishment, and imitation. Called social cognitive because it involves imitating other people based on societal views, and it involves children actively trying to understand what does on in their world. Children imitate behaviors that seem to be beneficial, or when they are done by those they perceive to be intelligent, popular, or talented. Bandura also argues that experience gives children a sense of self-efficacy, that helps determine whether they will imitate another or not.
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Self-efficacy
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Part of Albert Bandura's (1925-) social-cognitive theory. Self efficacy is a child's beliefs about their own abilities and talents, that help determine when they will imitate others.
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The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective
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Focuses on how children think and on how their thinking changes as they grow. Development reflects children's efforts to understand the world.
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Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
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Proposed best known cognitive-developmental theory, known as the four stages of cognitive development. Believed that children try to comprehend their world in the same way that scientists do when they are creating theories, and use the scientific method. His theory is considered stage developmental.
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Piaget's four stages of cognitive development
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Sensorimotor (birth-2) based on senses and motor skills and mental representations. Preoperational (2-6) Child learns how to use symbols such as words and numbers, but is egocentric. Concrete Operational (7-11) uses logical operations, provided they are focused on the here and now. Formal Operational (12-beyond) thinks abstractly, hypothetically, and reasons deductively.
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The Contextual Perspective
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The contextual approach emphasizes the many different elements of culture that affect children's development. Development is influenced by immediate and more distant environments, which typically influence each other.
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Culture
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The knowledge, attitudes, and behavior associated with a group of people. It can refer to a particular country or people, to a specific point in time, or to groups of individuals who maintain specific, identifiable cultural traditions.
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Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
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Russian contextual psychologist who focused on ways that adults convey to tchildren the beliefs, customs, and skills of their culture. Viewed development as an apprenticeship in which children develop when they work with skilled adults.
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contextual
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Describe different theories that typify the biological perspective on child development.
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Maturation theory- theory that there is a biological "plan" that unfolds as child develops, regardless of environmental factors. Ethological theory- theory that certain behaviors are naturally selected for, inherited, and reveal themselves in much the same way as in maturation theory, except that environment has somewhat of an effect on development (but not in the same generation). This theory also includes the theories of critical periods and imprinting.
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maturation and ethological
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What are the main features of the contextual perspective on child development?
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1. that culture makes a big difference on the development of a child
2. development of a child is largely based on training by a skilled adult 3. development is influence by immediate and more distant environments, which typically influence one another. 4. family, media, culture, extended family, etc. |
apprenticeship
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continuity vs discontinuity
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Debate about whether development is a continuous process or a discontinuous process. It is about the "relatedness" of development: are early aspects of development consistently related to later aspects? Can be compared to a growing tree (continuous) or the stages of a butterfly (discontinuous).
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trees vs. butterflies
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nature vs. nurture
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What roles do biology (nature) and environment (nurture) have on development? Virtually all aspects of development are determined by the combined forces of heredity and environment. Development is thus shaped by both, and scientists are now look to what extent do these things interact.
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active-passive child issue
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Are children simply at the mercy of their environment (passive) or do children actively influence their own development through their own unique individual characteristics (active child)?
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Passive- Locke/Aristotle
Active- Rousseau/Plato. |
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What is the present consensus on the developmental themes?
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Continuity: early development is related to later development by not perfectly. Nature and Nurture: Development is always jointly influenced by heredity and environment. Active children: Children do influenced their own development. Connections: Development in different domains is connected.
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nature/nurture, active/passive child, continuity/discontinuity, and connections
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The Scientific Method in Developmental Psychology
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Child-development researchers use the scientific method in which they formulate hypotheses, then collect data to evaluate those hypotheses. In devising methods, child development scientists need to decide how to measure the topic, that they are respecting the rights of participants, and how to best communicate their results to researchers.
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Systematic Observation
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Involves watching children and carefully recording what they say or do. Two forms of SO are common: Naturalistic and structured observation.
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As the name implies...
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Naturalistic Observation
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children are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real-life situations. Before hand, they must decide which variables (factors subject to change) to record. Illustrated in research by Ensor and Hughes (2008), who studied conversations between mothers and their 2 year olds.
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ex: in lunchroom, to measure friend making.
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Structured observation
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the researcher creates a setting likely to elicit the behavior of interest. Useful for studying behaviors that are difficult to observe naturally. Investigators must be careful that the settings they create do not interfere with the measured variable, or manufacture results with low external validity.
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laboratory
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Sampling Behavior with tasks
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When investigators can't sample behavior directly, an alrenative is to create tasks that are thought to sample the behavior of interest. it is popular because it is simple and convenient, but testers must be careful that the tests has validity
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Self Reports
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Children's answers to questions about the topic of interest, in the form of a questionnaire or interview. Self-reports are useful because they can lead directy to information on the topic of interest, relatively convenient. but they are also not always valid, because children's answers are not always accurate or flawed due to response bias.
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Response Bias
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some responses may be more socially acceptable than others, and children are more likely to select those than socially unacceptable answers.
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Physiological Measures
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Using physiological responses, like heart rate (degree of attention) and increase in cortisol (signaling stress). Physiological methods are usually specified and often used alongside behavioral measures.
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Reliability
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A test is reliable if it produces the same results and is consistent over time.
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Validity
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A test is valid if it really measures what the researcher thinks it measures. Validity is often established by showing that the measure is closely related to another measure known to be valid.
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Representative Sampling
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Researchers are usually interested in a broad grop of children called populations (e.g. 7 year old americans). It would be difficult/impossible to study all within a group, so virtually all studies include only a sample of children, a subset of the populaiton. The scientist must make sure this sample is representative, that is, that it truly represents the whole population, so that the results will have external validity.
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Correlational Study
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investigators look at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world. The results of a correlational study are usually expressed as a correlation coefficient (r) which stands for the direction and strength of a relation, anc can range from +1 to -1. The results of a correlational study show if two variables are related, but does not show any causal relationship.
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Experiment
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An experiment is when the investigator systematically varies factors thought to cause a particular behavior. The factor that is varied is called the independant variable, and the behavior that is measured is called the dependant variable. Experimental studies allow scientists to make conslusions about cause and effect.
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Field experiment
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In a field experiment, the researcher manipulates independent variables in a natural setting so that the results are more likely to be representative of behavior in real-world settings. They allow strong conclusions because they are conducted in natural settings.
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Longitudinal Design
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the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives. in a microgenic study, children are tested repeatedly over a span of days or weeks, typically with the aim of oberving change directly as it occurs. Very accurate, but very hard to pull off due to Practice effects, selective attrition, and cohort effects.
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Practice effects
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Children who become "test-wise" after being tested repeatedly may skew improvement over time.
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Selective attrition
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Constancy of the sample of the course of the research as sample tends to get smaller as more people drop out of study over time
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Cohort effects
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When children in longitudinal study are observed over a period of several years, the developmental change may be specific to a generation or people known as cohorts.
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Cross-sectional design
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Developmental changes are identified by testing different children of different ages. Easier to do than longitudinal, but not as accurate.
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Longitudinal-sequential studies.
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A hybrid of cross-sectional and longitudinal. this includes sequences of samples, each studies longitudinally. Study a group consisting of different ages, and then study same group at different stages. Does not suffer from cohort and practice effects.
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Meta-analysis
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A tool that allows researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables. Allows researchesr to intergrate the findings from many similar studies, making it possible to determine the generality and consistency of research results. ex. Juffer and van Ijzendoorn (2007). found 88 studies, found that self-esteem did not differ in adopted and nonadopted individuals.
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5 HTT gene Correlational study
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Experiment that tested the relationship between depression, stressful events during life, and a certain gene. results showed that there was no change between genes with little life stress, but that significant live stress caused a rise in depression symptoms that differed from group to group based on the shape of this gene. This showed the interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)
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nature vs nurture
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