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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Sensation |
The immediate response of our sensory receptors to basic stimuli |
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Sensory System |
Vision, Taste, Smell, Sound, Touch |
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Perception |
The process by which an individual select, organizes and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world |
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Stages of Perception |
Exposure, Attention, Interpretation |
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Exposure |
Exposure occurs when a sensory stimulus comes within range of a sensory receptor |
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Absolute Threshold |
Is the lowest level at which an individual can experience a sensation |
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Differential Threshold |
Refers to the ability of a sensory system to detect changes in or differences between two stimuli |
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Subliminal Perception [subliminal messaging] |
stimuli that are too weak or too brief to be consciously seen or heard, may be strong enough to be perceived by one or more receptor cells (example of absolute threshold) |
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Weber's Law |
-The just noticeable difference (differential threshold) between two stimuli is not an absolute amount relative to the intensity of the first stimulus -Weber's law states that the stronger the initial stimuli, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimuli to be perceived as different |
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Attention |
Attention is the extent to which processing activity is devoted to a particular stimulus |
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Interpretation |
Refer to the meaning we assign to sensory stimuli, which is based on a schema |
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Gestalt |
"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts" |
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3 General Principles of Organization |
Figure Ground, Closure, Similarity |
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Principle of Organization: Figure Ground |
one part of the stimulus will dominate (the figure) while the other parts recede into the background (ground) |
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Principle of Organization: Closure |
people perceive an incomplete picture as complete |
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Principle of Organization: Similarity |
consumers group together objects that share similar physical characteristics |
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Semiotics |
The field of semiotics helps us to interpret the world around us |
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Brand Positioning |
- Establishing a specific image for a brand in the consumer's mind - Product is positioned in relation to competing brands - Conveys the concept, or meaning, of the product in terms of how it fulfills a consumer need -Result of successful position is a distinctive, positive brand image |
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Brand Position Techniques |
-Umbrella Positioning - creating an overall image in the minds of consumers, within which you can place many of your product (great for very large companies, McDonalds) -Positioning against Competition - comparative advertising, direct or indirect -Positioning based on a Specific Benefit - FedEx on reliability -Finding an Unowned Position - seeking out unmet needs -Filling Several Position - blanketing a market (Visine Eye Drops has forms for redness, long-lasting, allergy, lubrication) -Reposition |
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Perceptual Mapping |
A research technique that enables marketer to plot graphically consumers' perceptions concerning product attribute of specific brand |
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Learning |
The process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and experience that they apply to future related behavior |
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Marketers must teach Consumers |
-Where to buy -How to use -How to maintain - How to dispose of products |
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2 Types of Learning Theories |
-Behavioral Theories - based on observable behaviors (responses that occur as the result of exposure to stimuli) -Cognitive Theories - learning based on mental information processing (often in response to problem solving) |
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Elements of Learning Theories |
-Motivation -Cues -Response -Reinforcement |
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3 Types of Behavioral Learning Theories |
-Classical Conditioning -Instrumental Conditioning -Modeling or Observational Learning |
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Classical Conditioning |
A behavioral learning theory according to which a stimulus is paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response that serves to produce the same response when used alone |
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Strategic Applications of Classical Conditioning |
-Repetition (increase the association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus, slows the pace of forgetting, advertising wear-out is a problem: two-factor theory) -Stimulus Generalization (having the same response to slightly different stimuli, helps "me-too" products to succeed, useful in product extensions) -Stimulus Discrimination (selection of a specific stimulus from similar stimuli, this discrimination is the basis of positioning which looks for unique ways to fill need)
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Instrumental Conditioning |
A behavioral theory of learning based on a trial and error process, with habits as the result of positive experiences (reinforcement) resulting from certain responses or behaviors |
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4 Types of Reinforcement |
-Positive -Negative -Punishment -Forgetting/Extinction |
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Instrumental Conditioning and Marketing |
- Customer Satisfaction (reinforcement) -Reinforcement Schedules (variable/fixed and ratio/interval) -Shaping (reinforcing select behaviors [getting people to try a product or come into a store] with the goal of building up longer term, more important behaviors [loyalty]) -Massed v. Distributed Learning (massed or pulsed is a ton of advertising over a short time period while distributed i advertising over a longer period of time) |
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Cognitive Learning Theory |
-Holds that the kind of learning most characteristic of human beings is problem solving, which enables individuals to gain some control over their environment -People are not mindless "black boxes" -Experiential and observational knowledge allows people to learn basic relationship over time, and form expectations of likely outcomes based on that knowledge |
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Observational Learning |
-A process by which individuals observe how others behave in response to certain stimuli and reinforcements, also known as modeling or vicarious learning - people watch others receive reinforcement and "learn" without ever having experienced the reinforcement |
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Parental Socialization Styles |
-Authoritarian Parents -Neglecting Parents -Indulgent Parents |
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Memory |
A process of acquiring and storing information such that it will be available when needed |
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3 Stages of Memory |
-Encoding Stage -Storage Stage -Retrieval Stage
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Stages of Memory: Encoding Stage |
Information entered in a recognizable way |
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Stages of Memory: Storage Stage |
Knowledge integrated into what is already there and warehoused |
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Stages of Memory: Retrieval Stage |
The person accesses the desired information |
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The 4 Step Memory Process |
-External Inputs -Encoding -Storage -Retrieval |
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Encoding Info for later Retrieval |
Types of Meaning -sensory meaning (e.g. color or shape) - sense of familiarity (e.g. seeing a food that we have tasted) -semantic meaning - symbolic associations (e.g. rich people drink champagne) Personal Relevance -episodic memories - relate to events that are personally relevant -flashbulb memories - especially vivid associations narrative - an effective way of persuading people to construct a mental representation of the information that they are viewing |
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5 Memory Systems |
-Sensory Memory -Attention -Short-Term Memory -Long-Term Memory -Elaborative Rehearsal |
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Multiple Store Models of Memory |
Traditional perspective which assumes that short-term memory and long-term memory are separate systems |
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Sensory Memory |
Very temporary storage of information we receive from our sense |
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Short-Term Memory (STM) |
Limited period of time and limited capacity, working memory |
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Long-Term Memory (LTM) |
Can retain information for a long period of time, elaboration rehearsal is required, process involves thinking about a stimulus and relating it to information already in memory |
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Activation Models of Memory |
-Argues that different levels of processing occur depending on the nature of the processing task -The more effort it takes to process information, the more likely that information will be placed in LTM |
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Storing Info in Memory: Associative Networks |
-contains many bits of related information organized according to some set of relationship -knowledge structures: complex "spider webs" filled with pieces of data -hierarchical processing model -node -an associative network is developed as links form between nodes |
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Hierarchical Processing Model |
Message is processed in subject to increasingly complex processing which requires increased cognitive capactiy |
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Node |
A concept related to a category |
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Memory Systems: Spreading Activation |
A process which allows consumers to shift back and forth between levels of meaning |
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Schema |
A cognitive framework (comprised of propositions - a larger unit of meaning) developed through experience |
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Script |
A type of schema consisting of a sequence of events expected by an individual |
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Factors Influencing Retrieval |
-Physiological Facts (e.g. age) -Situational Factors -Viewing Environment -Post Experience Advertising Effects |
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Factors Influencing Retrieval: Situational |
-Pioneering Brand - first brand to enter a market is generally easier to retrieve from memory -Descriptive Brand - names easier to recall than names that do not provide cues to what the product is |
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Factors Influencing Retrieval: Viewing Environment |
Commercials shown first in a series of ads are recalled better than those shown last (serial position effect) |
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Factors Influencing Retrieval: Post Experience Advertising Effects |
When consumer confuse recently viewed ads with their own experiences |
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Retrieving Info for Purchase Decisions |
-State-dependent Retrieval -Familiarity and Recall -Salience and Recall |
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Retrieving Info for Purchase Decisions: State-dependent Retrieval |
-Mood Congruence Effect - a process by which consumers are better able to access info if their mood is the same at the time of their recall as when the info was learned -A few marketing researchers use hypnosis to dredge up past memories of experiences with products |
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Retrieving Info for Purchase Decisions: Familiarity and Recall |
Prior familiarity enchances recall |
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Retrieving Info for Purchase Decision: Salience and Recall |
-Salience - the prominence or level of activation of stimuli in memory -Von Restorff Effect - any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall |
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Forgetting |
The inability to recall and be influenced by |
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4 Causes of Forgetting |
-Decay - structural changes in the brain produced by learning simply go away -Retroactive Interference - consumers forget stimulus, response associations when new responses to the same or similar stimuli are learned -Proactive Interference - as new responses are learned a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving the old response -Part List Cueing Effect - when only a portion of the items in a category are presented to consumers, the omitted items are not as easily recalled |
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Autobiographical Memories |
Consumer memories related to their own past |
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Mnemonic Qualities |
Aspects of a consumer's possessions that serve as a form of external memory which prompts the retrieval of episodic memories |
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Spontaneous Recovery |
The ability of a stimulus to evoke a response years after it is initially perceived |
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Memory and Aesthetic Preference |
Ads and products that remind consumers of their past also help to determined what they like now |
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Recognition v. Recall |
-Typical Recognition Test - subjects are shown ads and asked if they have seen them before
-Typical Recall Test - subjects are asked to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted first
-Starch Test - a widely used commercial measure of advertising recall for magazines |
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Personality |
The inner psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person responds to his or her enviroment |
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The 3 Natures of Personality |
-Personality reflects individual differences -Personality is consistent and enduring -Personality can change (major life events, growing up) |
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3 Theories of Personality |
-Freudian Theory (unconscious needs or drives are at the heart of human motivation) -Neo-Freudian Theory (social relationships are fundamental to the formation and development of personality) -Trait Theory (quantitative approach to personality as a set of psychological traits) |
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Freudian Personality Theory |
- ID - Superego -Ego |
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ID |
-Primitive or instinctual needs for which individual seeks immediate satisfaction -Basic needs reflected here: hunger, thirst, sex -Instant gratification tendencies, impulsive behavior |
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Superego |
-Individual's internal expression of society's moral and ethical codes of conduct -Learned norms and values -Acts as a counterbalance to the ID |
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Ego |
Individual's conscious control that balances the demands of the ID and superego |
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Freudian Theory and "Product Personality" |
-Consumer researches using Freud's personality theory see consumer purchases as a reflection and extension of the consumer's own personality Consumers are thought to consume product in part as a reflection and extension of their own innate personality -Snack food study based on over 19000 consumers where correlations were estimated on consumption behavior (snacks preferred and eaten) and personality traits |
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Neo-Freduian Personality Theory |
-Many of these researchers believed that social interaction provides the basis for personality (not instincts and sexual nature) -Karen Horney -Carl Jung |
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Neo-Freduian Karen Horney |
-Interested in child-parent relationships and desires to conquer feelings of anxiety. Proposed 3 types of people: Compliant - move toward others, they desire to be loved, wanted and appreciated Aggressive - move against others, they want to excel, achieve Detached - move away from others, they desire independence, self sufficiency
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Neo-Freduian Carl Jung |
-Was closer to Freud on the importance of instincts: Analytical Psychology - Jung's own method of psychotherapy Collective Unconscious - a storehouse of memories inherited from our ancestral past Archetypes - universally shared ideas and behavior patterns created by shared memories |
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Trait Personality Theory |
- Personality theory with a focus on psychological characteristics - Trait - any distinguishing, relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another -Personality is linked to how consumers make their choices or to consumption of a broad product category - not a specific brand |
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Innovativeness |
The degree to which consumers are receptive to new products, new services or new practices |
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Dogmatism |
A personality trait that reflects the degree of rigidity a person displays toward the unfamiliar and toward information that is contrary to his or her own estalished beliefs |
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Social Character (Inner vs. Other) |
-Ranges on a continuum for inner directedness to other directedness -Inner Directedness - rely on own values when evaluating products (innovators) -Other Directedness - look to others, less likely to be innovators |
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Optimum Stimulation Level |
-A personality trait that measures the level or amount of novelty or complexity that individuals seek in their personal experiences -High OSL consumers tend to accept risky and novel products more readily than low OSL consumers |
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Cognitive Personality Factors |
-Need for cognition: a person's craving for enjoyment of thinking, individual with high NC more likely to respond to ads rich in product info -Visualizers v. Verbalizers: a person's preference for info presented visually or verbally, verbalizers prefer written info over graphics/images |
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Problems with Trait Theory |
-Explanations for the inability of traits to predict consumer behavior in research: scales which are not valid or reliable scales misapplied to the general population tests not administered under proper conditions ad hoc changes to the measures dilute the validity of the measures generalized trai measures used to make predictions about specific behaviors shotgun approach using a number of scales |
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Consumer Materialism |
The extent to which a person is considered materialistic Very possession oriented, self-centered, likes toys, equated personal possessions with social status |
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Fixated Consumption Behavior |
Consumers fixated on certain products or categories of products (collectors) |
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Compulsive Consumption Behavior |
Addicted or out of control consumers |
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Consumer Ehtnocentrism |
Ethnocentric consumers feel it is wrong to purchase foreign-made products, they can be targeted by stressing nationalistic themes |
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Brand Personality |
-Personality like traits associated with brands -Brand personality which is strong and favorable will strengthen a brand but not necessarily demand a price premium |
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5 Brand Personality Frameworks |
-Sincerity -Excitement -Competence -Sophistication -Ruggedness |
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3 Brand Personality Issues |
-Gender (products can be sex-typed, perceived as masculine or feminine -Geography (actual locations or fictitious names) -Color (color combos in packaging/products denotes personality) |
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Self Concept |
The beliefs a person holds about his or her own attributes and how he or she evaluates these qualities |
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Real and Idealized Selves |
Ideal Self - a person's conception of how he or she would like to be (partially molded by elements of a consumer's culture) Actual Self - a person's realistic appraisal of the qualities he or she does and doesn't possess |
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Self Esteem |
Refers to the positivity of a person's self concept |
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Self Esteem Advertising |
Attempts to change product attitudes by stimulating positive feelings about the self |
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Multiple Selves |
We have real and ideal selves for different roles we play in life, marketers often target products to our different selves |
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Symbolic Interactionism Theory |
-Stresses that relationships with other people play a large part in forming the self
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Symbolic Interactionism Theory: The Looking Glass Self |
the process of imagining the reactions of others toward us |
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Symbolic Interactionism Theory: Self-fulfilling Prophecy |
By acting the way we assume others expect us to act, we wind up confirming these perceptions |
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Consumption and Self-Concept |
-Products help define who we are: People use an individual's consumption behaviors to help them make judgments about that person's social identify -There is a consistency between self and the products we use |
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Symbolic Self Completion Theory |
People who have an incomplete self definition tend to complete this identify by acquiring and displaying symbols associated with it |
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Self Image Congruence Model |
Products will be chosen when their attributes match some aspect of the self |
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Issues Related to Self and Self Image |
-Possessions can extend self in a number of ways actually (do things you can't do/don't want to do) symbolically (making you feel better - new shoes) conferring status or rank (social status - memberships) bestowing feelings of immortality (passing on things to family upon death) endowing with magical powers (owning lucky items) |
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4 Levels of the Extended Self |
-Individual (personal possessions) -Family (residence or furnishings) -Community (neighborhood or town where you live) -Group (social or other groups) |
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Ideals of Beauty |
-"What is beautiful is good" stereotype -Favorable physical features (attractive face, good health/youth, balance/symmetry, feminine curves/hourglass body shape, strong male features) |
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Attitude |
I like and/or I don't like |
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What is an Attitude |
A learned predisposition a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object (attitudes are enduring, consistent, and have valence) |
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4 Structural Models of Attitudes |
-Tricomponent Attitude Model -Hierarchies Effects Model -Attitude Functions Model -Multiattribute Attitude Model -Attitude Toward the Ad Model |
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TriComponent Model |
-Cognitive - the knowledge and beliefs that are acquired by a combination of direct experience with the attitude object and related information from various sources -Affective - a consumer's emotions or feelings about a particular product or brand -Conative - the likelihood or tendency that an individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a particular way with regard to the attitude object |
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Hierarchy of Effects Model |
-A fixed sequence of steps that occur en route to an attitude -Describes the order in which the three components arise in the attitude formation process |
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Attitude Functions Model |
-Utilitarian - attitudes exist based on rewards/punishment, good for ads which use modeling cognitive learning (GPS) -Ego-Defensive - attitudes formed to protect person from external threats or internal feelings (macho products - tag body spray) -Value Expressive - attitudes that exist to express a person's value system (organics) -Knowledge - attitudes formed as a result of our need for structure/order, fundamental human dislike for things strange/unfamiliar (ads with info) |
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Multiattribute Attitude Model |
-A person's attitude toward some attitude object is function of their attitudes toward individual attributes of that object -The attitude toward object model: attitude is function of evaluation of product specific beliefs and evaluations (fishbein model) -The attitude toward behavior model: attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to an object, rather than the attitude toward the object itself (corresponds closely to actual behavior) -Theory of reasoned action model: includes cognitive, affective, and conative components (includes subjective norms in addition to attitude) |
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Attitude Toward the Ad Model |
A model that proposes that a consumer forms various feelings (affects) and judgments (cognitions) as the result of exposure to an ad, which in turn, affect the consumer's attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand |
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Principle of Cognitive Consistency |
-Consumers value harmony among their thoughts, feelings or behaviors to be consistent with other experiences -very important for understanding human behavior -is responsible for many theories of attitude formation and change |
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Self Perception Theory |
People maintain consistency by inferring that they must maintain a positive attitude toward a product they have bought or consumed |
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Foot in the Door Technqiue |
Sales strategy based on the observation that consumers will comply with a request if they have first agreed to comply with a smaller request |
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Social Judgment Theory |
-People assimilate new Information about attitudes based on what they already know or feel -Attitudes of acceptance and rejection - people differ in the info they find acceptable/unacceptable |
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Assimilation Effect v. Contrast Effect |
-Messages that fall within the latitude of acceptance tend to be seen as more consistent with one's position than they actually are -Messages falling within the latitude of rejection tend to be seen as being farther from one's position than they acutally are |
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Balance Theory |
-Triad (attitude structure consisting of 3 element: persons and perceptions of/attitude of object/some other person or object)
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Elaboration Likelihood Model |
A theory that suggest that a person's level of involvement during message processing is a critical factor in determining which route to persuasion is likely to be effective |
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Levels of Commitment |
Levels of commitment to an attitude: the degree of commitment is related to the level of involvement with an attitude object (compliance, identification, internalization) |
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Levels of Commitment: Compliance |
lowest level of involvement based on simple rewards and punishment, very superficial and easily changed, highly sensitive to situational influences |
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Levels of Commitment: Identification |
moderate levels of involvement, attitudes formed in order to identify with another person or group (ads that depict social consequences of product use) |
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Levels of Commitment: Internalization |
highest level of involvement, deep seated attitudes are internalized become part of a person's value system, very hard to change |
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Attribution Theory |
A theory concerned with how people assign causality to events and form or alter their attitudes as an outcome of assessing their own or other people's behavior |
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5 Types of Message Sources |
-Credibility of information sources (includes word of mouth, opinion leaders) -Credibility of formal sources (neutral sources having the greatest credibility-non-profits, government, consumer reports, etc.) -Credibility of Spokesperson/Endorsers -Credibility of Celebrities -knowledge bias v. reporting bias |
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Sleeper Effect |
People tend to forget the source before they forget the message through a process called disassociation |
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5 Necessities for Designing Persuasive Comm |
-Target Audience (segmentation is key) -Media Strategy (consumer profile/audience provide) -Message Strategy (involvement theory-ELM/central and peripheral routes) -Message Structure and Presentation (resonance/message framing) |
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Designing Persuasive Comm: Linguistic Manipulation |
-Resonance - is a play on words, used to create a double meaning when used with a relevant picture -Metaphor - involves placing two dissimilar objects in a close relationship such as A is B |
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Designing Persuasive Comm: Message Framing |
-Message framing is the manner in which information is presented to a consumer (promotion focus/prevention focus) |
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Designing Persuasive Comm: 1 v. 2 sided Messages |
two sided messages are more credible (refutational argument-negative issue is raised, then dismissed) |
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Designing Persuasive Comm: Comparative Advertising |
Marketer claims product superiority over another brand |
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Types of Message Appeals |
-emotional v. rational -sexual -humorous -fear |
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Emotional v. Rational Appeals |
-Choice depends on the nature of the product and the type of relationship that consumers have with it -Recall of ad content tends to be better for thinking rather than feeling ads |
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Sexual Appeals |
Sex draws attention to the ad but may be counterproductive unless the product itself is related to sex |
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Humorous Appeals |
Distraction - humorous ads inhibit the consumer from counter arguing (thinking of reasons not to agree with the message) increasing the likelihood of message acceptance |
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Fear Appeals |
Emphasize the negative consequences that can occur unless the consumer changes a behavior or an attitude (negative reinforcement) |
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Time Perceptions |
Many factors at the time of purchase dramatically influence the consumer's decision-making process |
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Temporal Factors: Economic Time |
Time Style Time Poverty |
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Temporal Factors: Psychological Time |
Social temporal Orientation Planning Orientation Plychromic |
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5 Perspectives on Time |
Time is a... pressure cooker, map, mirror, river, feast |
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morgan |
my sister |
