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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does the renal system do? |
•Forms and excretes urine •Regulates fluid and electrolyte balance within body •Regulates blood pressure •Regulates acid-base balance within body •Regulates calcium metabolism in body •Stimulates production of erythropoietin which promotes production of red blood cells in bone marrow |
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Why is the kidney more prone to injury in children? |
It is larger in relation to their body than in adults |
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How is fluid important in body chemistry of children? |
It is more important than in adults because it constitutes a larger portion of their body weight. Children also have a larger relative body surface area so they are also more prone to insensible fluid loss. |
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What are the different types of anemia? |
* Nutritional Deficiency - Iron, Folic Acid or B12 (pernicious anemia) * Toxin Exposure - lead poisoning (can lead to cognitive defects) * Aplastic Anemia - Adverse reaction to medication * Hemolytic Anemia - Sickle Cell, thalassemia |
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The nurse is caring for a child with anemia caused by a deficiency in vitamin B12.What type of anemia is this child experiencing? a.pernicious anemia b.thalassemia c.folic acid deficiency anemia d.sickle cell anemia |
a. Pernicious Anemia |
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What is iron deficiency anemia? |
* Most common type of childhood anemia resulting from inadequate supply of iron * Leads to reduction in number of RBCs & quantity of Hgb, decrease in O2 carrying capacity of blood * the severity of symptoms is related to the amount and duration of iron deficiency * iron is needed more in children for growth and poor nutrition (toddler stage) |
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Who is more at risk of iron deficiency anemia? |
* neonates store iron in latter stage of pregnancy so premies and multiples are more at risk * Infants older than 6 months because their iron stores are depleted * Children in poverty * Children with poor diets (ex. toddlers) * Anyone experiencing chronic blood loss such as menstruating teenage girls * Children who drink a lot of milk - milk impedes iron absorption |
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What is a manifestation of iron deficiency anemia and what is it? |
Pica - cravings for non-food objects |
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What are the clinical manifestations of mild and moderate iron deficiency anemia? |
* Mild is asymptomatic * Moderate is - weakness - fatigue - lack of interest in play - general irritability |
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What are the clinical manifestations of severe iron deficiency anemia? |
* Cardiac murmurs * Pallor * Impaired healing * Thinning hair * Abdominal pain, anorexia * Nail bed deformities * Growth retardation/ developmental delays |
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What are the lab tests performed for iron deficiency anemia? |
* Hemoglobin * Mean Corpuscular Volume * TIBC (total iron binding capacity) |
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What is the nursing management for iron deficiency anemia? |
* Diet teaching (high fiber, fluids, Vitamin C and limiting milk intake) * Teaching of side effects of oral supplements (staining of teeth, constipation, tarry stools) * Promotion of rest, protection of infection * Teaching of proper storage (can be toxic to children) * Administration and monitoring of patient with the need for IV RBC replacement |
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What are some foods rich in iron? |
* Red meat * Tuna & salmon * Eggs * Tofu * Enriched grains * Dried beans, peas and fruit * Leafy green vegetables * Iron fortified cereals |
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What are the different types of insulin? |
* Rapid acting * Short acting * Intermediate acting * Long acting |
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What is the onset, peak and duration of rapid acting insulin? |
Onset: within 15 minutes Peak: 30 - 90 minutes Duration: 3 -5 hours Goes by the names: *Aspart/Novolog *Lispro/Humalog *Glulisine/Apidra |
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What is the onset, peak and duration of short acting insulin? |
Onset: 30 - 60 minutes Peak: 2 - 4 hours Duration: 5 -8 hours This is regular insulin that goes by the names: *Humulin R *Novolin R |
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What is the onset, peak and duration of intermediate acting insulin? |
Onset: 1 -3 hours Peak: 2 - 4 hours Duration: 10 -16 hours This is NPH insulin that goes by the names: *Humulin N *Novolin N |
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What is the onset, peak and duration of long acting insulin? |
Onset: 1 - 2 hours No clear peak Duration: 6 - 24 hours This is NPH insulin that goes by the names: *Glargine (Lantus) *Detemir (Levemir) |
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True or False? The nurse teaching parents of a child with diabetes about insulin administration correctly informs them that short-acting insulin has an onset within 15 minutes and lasts for 3 to 5 hours.
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False. Those characteristics belong to rapid acting insulin, not short acting. Short acting has an onset of 30-60 min, has a peak of 2 - 4 hours and a duration of 5 - 8 hours. |
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What are the different kinds of UTIs? |
* Cystitis - bladder infection * Urethritis - infection of the urethra * Pyelonephritis - infection of a or both kidneys UTI could be a combination of these |
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Why are UTIs more common in girls? |
Girls urethra is shorter and a UTI is caused by ascending bacteria, such as E.coli and candida. |
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What does a urinalysis show when an infection is present? |
* Nitrites - bacteria turns urine nitrates into nitrites * blood * leukocyte esterase - WBCs * bacteria |
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What is hydronephrosis? |
The swelling of a kidney due to improper drainage. Improper drainage may occur from a structural defect or from a blockage such as a kidney stone. |
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What is a VCUG? |
A voiding cytourethrogram is a test performed by radiology where a radioactive fluid is put into the bladder to capacity and then the child is asked to urinate. Radiology observes the ureters at this time to witness if the child has any urinary reflux. |
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What are the clinical manifestation of a UTI? |
For infants: odor, fever, poor feeding For preschoolers: odor, pain, frequency For School-aged children and adolescents: odor, pain, fever and chills, avoidance of urination |
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What is the treatment for a UTI? |
* bacterial identification & antibiotics * Increased fluid intake * ascorbic acid (or cranberry juice) * avoidance of caffeine |
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What are the short term adverse effects of chemotherapy? |
* immunosuppression * infection * myelosuppression * N/V * constipation * oral mucositis * alopecia * pain |
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What is myelosuppression? |
Decrease in the production of bone marrow |
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What is the care required for a child receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy? |
* CV access facilitates safer drug administration * Monitor skin integrity; at insertion sites, at radiation sites * Monitor mucus membrane integrity * Monitor for bleeding –avoid rectal temps, IM injections, use soft toothbrushes * Promote good nutrition * Provide psychosocial support/resources to caregivers and children |
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How do you minimize exposure to infection for a child receiving chemotherapy? |
* Hand hygiene * Private room (if WBC count is very low, stem cell transplant or C-diff) * Monitor temps * Avoid live vaccines (varicella, flu mist, MMR) |
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How do you promote adequate nutrition for a child with cancer? |
* Determine body weight and length/height norm for age. * Determine child’s food preferences and provide favorite foods as allowed, including increased-calorie shakes/puddings. * Administer anti-emetics as ordered. * Weigh child daily or weekly and measure length/height weekly. * Offer highest-calorie meals when appetite is the greatest. * Administer vitamin and mineral supplements as prescribed. * Administer TPN and intravenous lipids as ordered. |
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What are the different types of diabetes? |
* Type 1 - insulin deficiency (autoimmune) * Type 2 - insulin resistance * Diabetes secondary to disease such as CF, Cushing's, Klinefelter's, Turner's Syndrome * Gestational Diabetes |
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What are the manifestations of IDDM? |
* Three "P's" - polydipsia (excessive thirst), polyphagia (excessive hunger), polyuria (excessive urination) * Irritability * fatigue * weight loss * abdominal complaints * N/V |
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What are the prone ethnic groups for type 2 diabetes? |
* Native American * African American * Hispanic/ Latino * Asian/ Pacific Island descent |
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What are the signs and symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis? |
* Anorexia, N/V * Lethargy, stupor, altered LOC, confusion * Decreased skin turgor * Abdominal pain * Kussmaul respirations or air hunger * Fruity breath, acetone breath odor * Presence of ketones in urine and blood * tachycardia which can lead to coma and death |
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What are the non-diabetic levels of HbA1c? |
For people without diabetes, the normal range for the hemoglobin A1c test is between 4% and 5.6%. Hemoglobin A1c levels between 5.7% and 6.4% indicate increased risk of diabetes, and levels of 6.5% or higher indicate diabetes. |
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What are the teaching points for Diabetes Management? |
* Self measurement of blood glucose
* Urine ketone testing * Medication use * Signs and symptoms and treatment of hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia * Monitoring for and managing complications * Sick-day instructions * Laboratory testing and follow-up care * Diet and exercise as part of DM management |
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What is Hirschsprung's Disease? |
A congenital aganglionic megacolon. The absence of ganglion cells in the colon leads to a lack of peristalsis and feces accumulates. |
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What are the clinical manifestations of Hirschsprung's Disease? |
* For infants: failure to pass meconium within 24 to 48 hours of birth * Abdominal distention, palpation of fecal mass * Bile-stained vomitus * Refusal to feed * Intestinal obstruction which can turn into enterocolitis which can cause sepsis |
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How is Hirschsprung's Disease diagnosed? |
* 80% are diagnosed within the first year * Barium enema * physical exam * rectal biopsy showing absence of ganglion cells |
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How is Hirschsprung's Disease treated? |
* Two-stage surgical procedure - temporary colostomy (now in neonate period) - removal of aganglionic section and closure of colostomy |
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What is the nursing management and teaching of Hirschsprung's Disease? |
* Preop: extensive bowel cleansing (orally and in enemas). NPO, NGtube, IV, ABX to reduce intestinalflora * Post-op: monitor for return of bowel sounds, I+O,colostomy/ostomy care * Family teaching of post op care, support, education |
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What is intussusception? |
"Telescoping of a section of bowel. It becomes inflamed and edematous. Can cause sepsis. |
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What are the clinical manifestations of intussusception? |
* Colicky * intermitten abdominal pain * vomiting * lethargic * shock * currant, jelly-like stools (bloody & mucousy) |
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How is intussusception diagnosed? |
X-ray or abdominal ultrasound. An air contrast enema may be able to "blow out" the intussusception (insufflation), if there is no perforation. |
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What is the nursing management and family teaching of intussusception? |
* NPO * IV fluids * Watch for passage of normal stool, observing for several hours after insufflation * it can recur (has about a 10% chance) |
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What is appendicitis and what are the clinical manifestations? |
* Inflammation of the appendix (obstruction or infection). * Manifestations - RLQ pain - fever - N/V |
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How is appendicitis diagnosed and treated? |
* Guarding * Rebound pain * Lab findings/ CT scan It is treated with laparoscopy surgery or open appendectomy if it is perforated |
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What is the post op care of a patient who had appendicitis? |
* Monitor VS, LOC * Assess incision site, return of BS and abdominal distention * Encourage ambulation early * Monitor I's & O's * Monitor patient progress to normal voiding pattern * Evaluate pain and administer pain meds and antibiotics if ordered * Encourage TCDB (turn, cough, deep breathe) * Drain care of NG tube care if necessary |
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What are the causes of dehydration in children? |
* vomiting * diarrhea * burns * hemorrhage * inadequate fluid or food intake due to illness * overuse of diuretics or enemas (such as an adolescent with an eating disorder) |
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What are the clinical manifestations of dehydration? |
* Weight loss (mild <5%, mod 5-10%, severe 10%) * Rapid pulse * decreased BP * decreased peripheral circulation * decreased urinary output * Increased specific gravity >1.03 dark amber * decreased skin turgor * dry mucous membranes * absence of tears * sunken fontanels in infants |
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How is dehydration diagnosed? |
* CBC / Electrolyte panel * urinalysis (concentration, specific gravity, color, odor * weight |
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How is dehydration treated? |
* depends on cause and severity * treat underlying cause * oral rehydration therapy * IV therapy |
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What is the nursing management for patient with dehydration? |
* Assess LOC * Administration of IV fluids * Daily weights * Maintenance of accurate I's & O's * Provide for safety * Understand the signs and symptoms |
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Give an approximation of 5% dehydration. |
* no tears when crying * tacky oral mucosa * less active than usual |
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Give an approximation of 10% dehydration. |
* Sunken eyes * diminished skin turgor * sunken fontanel |
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Give an approximation of 15% dehydration. |
* Altered LOC * obvious shock (tachycardia, hypotension, cool extremities) * skin tenting |
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What is a cleft palate? |
Is one or more clefts in the upper lip, soft palate, and/or hard palate. Is congenital, hereditary, environmental teratogenic with defect occurring during embryonic development (7-12 weeks gestation) |
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How is a cleft palate diagnosed? |
* Most are obvious at birth * often diagnosed in utero * small clefts may not be obvious and formula coming out the nose may be the first sign |
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What is the treatment for a cleft palate? |
* Referrals to many specialists * Reconstruction surgeries are begun in infancy starting with the lip around 1-2 months and the palate around 6 - 18 months. If it is severe, it is performed in stages |
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What is ESSR? |
It is a feeding technique used for infants with a cleft palate. E - enlarge the hole in the nipple S - stimulate the suck reflex by rubbing the nipple of the bottle on the lower lip S - swallow - allow the infant swallow some formula or breastmilk R - give the infant a rest and burp him, they swallow larger amounts of air |
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What are some ways to maintain skin integrity? |
* hydration - maintain fluid balance * press on itchy skin instead of scratching * post-bath hydration - skin cream * do not pick at acne or skin infections * protect skin from the sun * eat a well-balanced diet * refrain from smoking or using illicit drugs * keep skin clean * use talcum powder in moist places |
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What is the gold standard test for sickle cell anemia? |
Hemoglobin Electrophoresis |
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What are the #1 and #2 priorities in a sickle cell crisis? |
#1 IV Hydration #2 Pain management |
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What is sickle cell anemia? |
An autosomal recessive disorder primarily affecting Africans, African Americans, and people of Mediterranean and Hispanic decent. The RBCs develop a sickle shape when exposed to diminished O2 levels. They become rigid and obstruct blood flow in capillaries. The RBCs do not carry the normal adult hemoglobin, but a less effective type. A patient with this often has cardiomegaly. |
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When is sickle cell the worst? |
It is more often a problem during sickness or dehydration. |
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What is an aplastic crisis? |
Anemia occurring in Sickle cell disease that is associated with increased destruction of fragile RBCs. Signs include profound anemia and pallor. |
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What is vaso-occlusive crisis? |
Stasis of blood causes ischemia and infarction. Signs include - fever - pain - tissue engorgement. |
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What is sequestration crisis? |
A potentially life threatening pooling of blood in the spleen that usually occurs in young children with sickle cell anemia. Signs include profound anemia, hypovolemia and shock. Often a child with sickle cell will receive a prophylactic splenectomy to prevent this. |
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What is acute chest syndrome? |
A vaso-occlusive crisis in the pulmonary vasculature. |
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What are the laboratory and diagnostic studies to assess sickle cell disease? |
* Newborn screening required by law * HgbElectrophoresis diagnostic test * Hemoglobin: baseline is usually 7 to 10 mg/dL;will be significantly lower with splenic sequestration, acute chest syndrome, or aplasticcrisis * Reticulocyte count: greatly elevated * Peripheral blood smear: presence of sickle-shaped cells and target cells * Platelet count: increased * Erythrocyte sedimentation rate: elevated * Abnormal liver function tests with elevated bilirubin |
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What is the nursing management of a patient with sickle cell disease? |
* Prevention of infection (immunizations & prophylactic antibiotics until age 5) * Prevention of vaso-occlusive crisis (med -hydroxyurea, transfusions if necessary, passive ROM exercises, O2, IV fluids) * Education * Pain management (morphine, dilaudid) * Psychosocial support of family & child * Ongoing evaluation of growth and development * Splenectomy, cholecystectomy * Folic Acid supplementation |
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Is the following statement true or false? Thenurse is caring for a child with a hemoglobinopathy in which the RBCs do not carry thenormal adult hemoglobin, but instead carry a less effective type. Thiscondition is known as idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura(ITP). |
False. This is sickle cell disease. |
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What is a patent ductus arteriosus? |
* It a failure of the ductus arteriosus to close within the first few weeks of life. * It is a connection between the aorta and the pulmonary artery. * It is the second most common congenital heart defect in children (10% of congenital heard defects). * Occurs more frequently in premature infants. |
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What is the pathophysiology of a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)? |
Oxygenated blood from the aorta allows some leakage into the deoxygenated blood in the pulmonary artery on it's way to the lungs. This is blood not entering the system, increasing the work load of the left side of the heart and increasing the pressure of the right side of the heart causing right ventricular hypertrophy. |
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What are the symptoms of PDA? |
* If it is small, it may be asymptomatic. * tachycardia * tachypnea * bounding peripheral pulses * widened pulse pressure * continuous machine like murmur heard best under left clavicle between 1st and 2nd intercostal spaces * May show signs of heart failure (rales upon auscultation) |
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Describe Digoxin. |
* It is a medication given to patients with heart failure. * It increases the effectiveness of the cardiac muscle contraction. * It is given in conjunction with a diuretic and blood pressure medication * Potassium levels need to be monitored since a decrease in potassium will increase the effectiveness of Digoxin potentially causing Digoxin toxicity. |
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What is lead poisoning? |
* Lead exerts toxic effects on the bone marrow, RBCs, nervous system and kidneys * Lead in the bloodstream interferes with biosynthesis of heme resulting in anemia * children exhibit classic signs of anemia * can cause behavioral problems, learning difficulty or even brain damage |
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What are the symptoms of lead poisoning? |
* Anorexia * Fatigue * Abdominal Pain * Irritability * Hyperactivity * Pallor * lack of milestone achievements |
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What is the treatment of lead poisoning? |
* Removing the lead source * Chelation therapy required for >45mcg/dL * >5 mcg/dL is considered abnormal |
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What are some sources of lead? |
* Paint in homed built before 1978 * Soil where old cars that used leaded gas have been * Glazed pottery and stained glass products * Lead pipes supplying water to homes * Old painted toys or furniture * Old folk remedies Greta & Arzacon * On clothing of parents in certain manufacturing jobs |
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What are the guidelines for treatment of lead poisoning? |
* 10-14mcg/dL - confirm with repeat test in 1 month. Educate parents about reducing exposure and repeat test again at 3 months * 15-19mcg/dL - same as above, but repeat test in 2 months * 20 - 44mcg/dL - confirm with repeat test in 1 week. Educate parents. Refer to local health department for investigation of home for lead reduction with referrals for support services * 45 - 69mcg/dL - Confirm in 2 days and educate parents. Begin chelation therapy and refer to health department as above * >70mcg/dL - Hospitalize child. Chelation therapy. Ensure lead is removed from home |
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What is Pyloric Stenosis? |
A narrowed opening in the pylorus, caused by an overgrowth of tissue. Sometimes an olive-sized, moveable, lump can be palpated in the upper right quadrant. |
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What are the clinical manifestations of Pyloric Stenosis? |
* Symptoms develop between the 3rd and 4th week of life * Nonbilious vomiting, undigested * Vomiting increases in frequency and becomes projectile * Infant may fail to thrive |
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What is the treatment for Pyloric Stenosis? |
It is treated surgically with a pyloromyotomy. The stomach is emptied via an NG tube pre-op. The NG tube is removed post op and feedings are begun slowly |
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What is Kawasaki Disease? |
* An acute systemic vasculitis occurring mostly in infants and young children. * Occurs more frequently in those of Asian and Pacific decent. * Is self-limiting, but causes cardiovascular sequelae in up to 25% of children. * Is the leading cause of acquired heart disease in children * Cause is unknown |
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What is congenital hypothyroidism? |
* A defect in the development of the thyroid gland in utero. * Typically, the infant is symptomatic by 1 month of age. * A risk factor is being born over 42 weeks. * Undetected and untreated would cause mental damage and growth failure (early detection is important) |
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What are the clinical manifestations of congenital hypothyroidism? |
* Delayed meconium passage * Feeding difficulty - poor suck reflex * Prolonged physiologic jaundice * Hypothermia * Parents describe as "good sleeper" |
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How is congenital hypothyroidism diagnosed? |
* Routine neonatal screening, which is state mandated, is performed prior to hospital discharge * best done between 2 and 6 days of age. * The screening would show a low Thyroxine level and a high TSH level. |
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What is acquired hypothyroidism and if acquired later in childhood, what would the manifestations be? |
* Most likely autoimmune
* Symptoms would include - a goiter - thin hair - muscle weakness - weight gain |
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If congenital hypothyroidism were not detected in the newborn stage, what would the symptoms be in early infancy? |
* Large protruding tongue * Coarse hair * Lethargy, sleepiness, parents describe as "good sleeper" * Constipation * Flat expression |
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What is the treatment of congenital hypothyroidism? |
* Thyroid hormone replacement therapy * Support & teaching to parents - child will need this med lifelong - administer a single dose in the morning - assess HR before administration - teach signs of under dosing (lethargy, fatigue, constipation, poor feeding) - know signs of overdosing |
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What are the signs of overdosing Thyroid hormone? |
* Tachycardia * irritability * fever * weight loss * diarrhea |
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What is the long term management for a child with congenital hypothyroidism? |
* measure and record growth at regular intervals * measure thyroid levels every 2-4 weeks until target range is reached on a stabilized dose of med * obtain tests every 3-4 months for the first several years of life changing to every 6 - 12 months in adolescence * monitor for signs of hypo or hyperfuction including changes in VS, thermoregulation and activity level * provide adequate rest periods and meet thermoregulation needs |
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What is congenital heart disease? |
It is defined as structural anomalies that are present at birth, though they are often not diagnosed until later in life |
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What is cardiac catheterization? |
When a radiopaque catheter is inserted through a vessel into the heart and injects contrast material to record information about the heart and the movement of the contrast material. |
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What are some significant signs of pediatric heart disease? |
* Orthopnea * dyspnea * easy fatigability * growth delays * edema * dizziness * frequent occurrences of pneumonia * diaphoresis (can be an early sign of heart failure) * cyanosis * tachypnea * squatting |
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What are some risk factors for heart alterations in children? |
* neonatal complications * renal issues * frequent infections * organ or marrow transplant * treatment with meds that raise BP * illnesses associated with HTN (neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis) * IICP * family history of heart disease * conditions of metabolic syndrome |
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Is the following statement true or false? Thenurse records an infant’s heart rate as 128 beats per minute. This is a normalinfant heart rate and it will decrease with age. |
True. |
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The nurse is assessing a child for cardiacdisorders and documents the presence of clubbing of the fingers and toes. Whichof the following conditions might this indicate? a.infection b.cyanosis c.edema d.hypoxia |
d. hypoxia. Clubbing (which usually does notappear until after 1 year of age) implies chronic hypoxia due to severecongenital heart disease. |
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What does a nurse assess in a child with CHD? |
* Heartrate, rhythm and presence of heart sounds (Remember that for normal cardiac rates in children, HR increases with crying and fever) * Skincolor * Lungsounds noting presence of adventitious sounds and rate * Pulses– assessing for quality and symmetry * Bloodpressure in all four extremities * Dailyweights – same time, same scale each day |
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What is the focus of nursing care for a child with a cardiac disorder? |
•Improving oxygenation •Promoting adequate nutrition •Assisting the child and family with coping •Providing postoperative nursing care •Preventing infection •Providing child and family education |
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What accounts for the largest percentage of all birth defects? |
Congenital Heart Disease |
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What are the two types of acquired heart disease? |
* Rheumatic Fever * Kawasaki's Disease |
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What are the signs and symptoms of Kawasaki disease? |
* Fever, chills, malaise (high fever that is unresponsive to antibiotics or antipyretics for 5 days) * Edema (hands and feet) * Conjunctivitis * Strawberry tongue * Extreme irritability * Desquamation of hands and feet * Vomiting & Diarrhea * Abdominal pain and joint pain * Cardiovascular manifestations |
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What is the nursing management of a child with Kawasaki Disease? |
* Promoting comfort * Administer medication therapy as ordered (IVIG, ASA therapy) * Encourage ROM in clients with joint involvement * Assess VS and respiratory functon * Education and support to child and family |
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Is the following statement true or false? Themost common reason for admission to the hospital for children with congenitalheart disease is heart failure. |
True. The most common reasonfor admission to the hospital for children with congenital heart disease isheart failure. |
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What is Rheumatic Fever? |
* It is a complication of untreated Strep throat caused by the group A strep pyrogenes * It is a collagen disease - affects the heart, joints and subcutaneous tissue * Thought to be autoimmune |
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What are the manifestations of rheumatic fever? |
* Carditis * Tachycardia (even when sleeping) * Polyarthritis * Chorea (late manifestation) - jerky involuntary movements * Erythema marginatum on trunk and extremities * Fever |
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How is rheumatic fever diagnosed? |
Labwork * CRP * ESR * ASO (Antistreptolysin O titre) * Throat culture |
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How is rheumatic fever treated? |
* Oral Penicillin * High dose aspirin * bedrest * Long term - oral penicillin or monthly IM injections |
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What is an echocardiogram? |
A diagnostic tool using high pitched sound waves like an ultrasound to identify cardiac abnormalities. |
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What is a hydrocele? |
A collection of peritoneal fluid in the scrotal sac. Usually resolves on it's own by age 1 year. |
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What is epispadias? |
A rare malformation of the penis in which the urethra ends in an opening on the dorsal (top) side of the penis, instead of the tip. |
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What is hypospadias? |
A rare malformation of the penis in which the urethra ends in an opening on the ventral (bottom) side of the penis, instead of the tip. |
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What is the treatment for epispadias/ hypospadias? |
Although this condition does not impede elimination, it could interfere with reproduction, so surgery is treatment. The infant male is not to be circumcised in order to have the tissue be used for repair. |
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What is testicular torsion? |
* A medical emergency where a testicle is twisted. * It requires immediate surgery to prevent ischemia and infertility * Most commonly occurs in boys 12-18 years * Is extremely painful |
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What is ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)? |
* A VSD is an opening between the right and left ventricular chambers of the heart.
* It varies in severity. * It is one of the most common congenital heart defects. * Spontaneously closure of small VSDs occurs in about half of the children by the age of 2. * Surgical repair of larger defects is recommended by age 2 |
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What is precocious puberty? |
* The onset of puberty before age 8 in females and age 9 in males. * More common in females * More commonly idiopathic, but can be secondary to tumor, infection, cranial radiation or head trauma * rapid bone maturation causes eventual short stature as adult due to early fusion of epiphyseal plates (bone age > chronological age) * Two kinds: Central & Peripheral |
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What is the difference between central and peripheral precocious puberty? |
* Central, the most common form, is a result of early release of gonadotropin releasing hormone, which stimulates the gonads to release sex hormones. * Peripheral does not include hormones other than sex hormones. * Both need to be treated to prevent short stature and closing of epiphyseal plates |
