Biopsychology Chapter 10 (Brain Damages)

Front 1

A tumor (_____) is a group of cells growing independently of the rest of the body; a tumor can be _____ or _____; it can be _____ or _____.

Back 1

Neoplasm
Encapsulated or Infiltrating
Benign or Malignant

Front 2

_____ tumors are tumors that originate in one organ and spread to another; _____% of brain tumors are _____ that grow in the meninges; they are encapsulated and benign.

Back 2

Metastatic Tumors
20%
Meningiomas

Front 3

Cerebrovascular Disorder
A _____ is commonly used to refer to any cerebrovascular disorder of sudden onset.

Back 3

Stroke

Front 4

A stroke may be due to _____; the bursting of _____ (ballon-like dilations of weak areas of blood vessels) is a major cause of intracerebral bleeding. Aneurysms can be _____ or the result of infection, toxins, etc.

Back 4

Cerebral Hemorrhage
Aneurysms
Congenital

Front 5

_____ is a disruption of blood supply to an area of the brain:
*In _____, a plug (a _____) becomes lodged at its site of formation; the plug may be due to a blood clot, fat, oil, cancerous cells, air bubbles, etc.
*In _____, a plug (a _____) travels from its site of formation and becomes lodged in a smaller blood vessel.
*In _____, the blood vessel walls thicken and the space inside narrows; usually from the accumulation of fat.

Back 5

Cerebral Ischemia
*Thrombosis, a plug (a Thrombus)
*Embolism, a plug (an Embolus)
*Arteriosclerosis

Front 6

The brain damage caused during an _____ episode is believed to be due to an excessive release of _____.

Back 6

Ischemic episode
Excitatory Amino Acids

Front 7

_____, the brain's most prevalent excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter, is released in excessive quantities when blood vessels are blocked.

Back 7

Glutamate

The excessive glutamate over activates glutamate receptors on postsynaptic membrane sites, thus too many Na+ and Ca++ ions are allowed to enter the postsynaptic neuron; the over abundance of Na+ and triggers a sequence of reactions that kills the postsynaptic neuron.

Researchers are currently studying the ability of NMDA receptor blockers administered directly after a stroke to reduce subsequent brain damage.

Front 8

Closed-head Injuries
A brain _____ is an injury in which there is bleeding from the brain in the absence of a laceration. The bleeding results in a _____ (a bruise or collection of clotted blood), contusions are caused by the brain hitting the skull, and they are often _____ (on other side of the brain from blow).

Back 8

Contusion
Hematoma
Contre Coup

Front 9

_____ is the diagnosis when a blow to the head disrupts consciousness, and there is no evidence of a contusion or other structural damage. _____ syndrome is general dementia and scarring.

Back 9

Concussion
Punch-Drunk syndrome

Front 10

Infections of the Brain
_____ is the general term for inflammation of the brain resulting from infection.
_____ can be treated with antibiotics, bur if left untreated they can cause ____ (inflammation of meanings), _____ (pockets of pus), and _____ (a syndrome of insanity and dementia).
_____ infections include infections that preferentially attack the nervous system.

Back 10

Encephalitis
Bacterial Infection, Meningitis, Brain abscess, and General Paresis.
Viral infections

Front 11

Neural Toxins
Brain damage produced by a variety of toxins in the environment: "mad hatter" results of _____, "crackpots" originally those who drank tea from cracked ceramic pots with _____ cores.
Neurotoxic effects; e.g., _____ disorder produced by prolonged exposure to certain antipsychotic medication (for SX, clozapine).

Back 11

Mercury, Lead
Tardive Dyskinesia

Front 12

Genetic Factors
Some genetic disorders are accidents of cell division (e.g., in _____, an extra chromosome in pair 21 is present in all cells). This extra chromosome produces characteristic _____ and _____.

Back 12

Down Syndrome
Physical alterations and Retarded intellectual development

Front 13

Programmed Cell Death-- _____ neurons and other cells are often eliminated by activating genes that kill them; this programmed cell death is called _____, more adaptive than _____, in which neurons die passively as a result of injury.

Back 13

Dysfunctional Neurons
Apoptosis
Necrosis

Front 14

Neuropsychological Disorders
*Epilepsy- When _____ (motor seizures) are present, epilepsy is easy to diagnose; convulsions often involve _____ (tremor), _____ (rigidity), loss of balance, and/or loss of consciousness. Epileptic _____ sometimes precede an epileptic seizure.
*Partial Seizures- Partial seizures are those that do not involve the entire brain. _____ are partial seizures whose symptoms are primarily sensory and/or motor. _____ are often restricted to the _____; the motor symptoms of complex partial seizures vary in complexity from _____ (simple, compulsive, repeated behaviors, such as tugging on a piece of hair) to long sequences of behavior that are out of context and slightly peculiar but are, for the most part, normal-appearing. Epileptics have ____ for the seizures.

Back 14

*Convulsions, Clonus, Tonus, Auras
*Simple partial seizures,
*Complex partial seizures, Temporal Lobes, Automatisms, No Memory

Front 15

Generalized Seizures
Generalized seizures involve the entire brain; include _____ ("big trouble") (_____, loss of balance and consciousness, tongue biting, incontinence, turning blue from _____) and _____ ("little trouble")

Back 15

Grande Mal
Tonic-clonic
Hypoxia
Petite Mal

Front 16

Parkinson'd Disease
More common in _____; first symptom is often a _____ or _____ (the same symptoms seen in many other long and short-term disorders);
Full blown: _____, _____, _____, and a _____.

Back 16

Males
Tremor or Stiffness of the fingers
Tremor at rest, Muscular rigidity, Slowness of movement, and a Mask like face

Front 17

Parkinson'd Disease
There is no intellectual deterioration (no dementia); cause is unknown, but it is associated with degeneration of _____ neurons in the _____; these neurons project to the _____.
*Treatment is with _____, the metabolic precursor of dopamine, though it is not a permanent solution.

Back 17

Dopamine
Substantia Nigra
Striatum of the basal ganglia
*L-DOPA

Front 18

Huntington's Disease
Like Parkinson's disease, it is a _____; unlike Parkinson's disease, it is inherited but rare, its cause is understood, and it is always associated with _____.
Main symptoms are _____ of entire limbs; dementia occurs later in the disease, which is always fatal.

Back 18

Motor Disorder
Dementia
Complex jerky movements

Front 19

Huntington's Disease
Huntington's disease is caused by a single _____; _____% of all offspring of a Huntington's parent will get it; First symptoms do not appear until after the age of reproduction (at _____ years). The abnormal gene responsible for Huntington's disease produces an abnormal protein called _____.

Back 19

Dominant gene
50%
40-50 years
Huntington

Front 20

Multiple Sclerosis
MS is a disease of the _____; degeneration of the myelin sheaths eventually leads to a breakdown of myelin and the associated axons and the development of areas of hard scar tissue throughout the CNS; sclerosis means "hardening."
Common symptoms are _____ (loss of motor coordination), weakness, numbness, tremor, and poor vision.

Back 20

CNS Myelin sheaths
Ataxia

Front 21

Epidemiology Multiple Sclerosis
*Both genetic and environmental factors are responsible for he etiology of multiple sclerosis.
*The following three epidemiological findings implicate _____ factors.
1) A higher concordance rate in monozygotic twins (25%) than in dyzygotic twins (5%).
2) 3 times higher incidence in females
3) Higher incidence in Caucasians (.15%) than other ethnic groups, EG, native Asians and Africans.

Back 21

Genetic factors

Front 22

Epidemiology Multiple Sclerosis
The following 3 epidemiological findings implicate ____ factors.
1) The incidence of MS is higher among populations living in colder climates, as opposed to near the equator.
2) Individuals who migrate from a higher-incidence region to a low-incidence region, particularly at a young age, reduce their susceptibility (and vice versa).
3) Cigarette smokers are at greater risk for developing MS
4) Contracting the Epstien Barr virus when young increases your risk for MS.

Back 22

Environmental factors

Emphasis on Epigenetic Factors:
*The interaction between environment and a genetic predisposition seems to be responsible for MS.
*An example of this is the role that vitamin D plays in MS.
*MS is highest in regions farthest from the equator not exposed to strong sunlight (a source of vit.D).

Front 23

Alzheimer's Disease
15% of people over 65 and 35% over 85 years old suffer from Alzheimer's disease.
First signs are selective decline in memory (e.g., forgetfulness): during the intermediate stage there is increased emotional instability (e.g. anxiety) and loss of speech function. Eventually, there is total dementia and an inability to perform even the most simple responses (e.g. swallowing); it is _____.

Back 23

Terminal

Front 24

Alzheimer's Disease
can only by definitively diagnosed by autopsy and the discovery of _____ (clumps of degenerating neurons and an abnormal protein called _____), and _____ within neurons; plaques, tangles, and neuron loss are often most common in areas involved in memory such as the _____, _____, and _____.

Back 24

Beta amyloid plaques
Amyloid
Neurofibrillary Tangles
Hippocampus, Amygdala, Entorhinal cortex

Front 25

Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's appears to have a clear genetic component; people with an immediate family member suffering from Alzheimer's disease have a 50% chance of developing the disease if they live into their 80s.
Efforts have focused on treatments that increase _____ function, as _____ neurons often die early in the course of Alzheimer's disease; these are largely ineffective.

Back 25

Acetylcholine
Cholinergic

Front 26

Neural Damage: Degeneration
Deterioration of the neuron following damage. There are two main types.
*_____ involves _____ of the axon and occurs rapidly following an axotomy; the entire segment of the axon that was separated from the cell body swells and within a few days breaks into fragments.
*_____ involves changes in the _____ of the axon from the site of damage back to the soma over a two to three day period. If early changes show an increase in the size, the neuron will likely regenerate the axon; if early changes include a decrease in size, the entire cell will probably degenerate and die.

Back 26

Anterograde degeneration
Distal Segments

Retrograde degeneration
Proximal Segments

Front 27

Neural Damage: Degeneration
_____ is the spread of degeneration from damaged neurons to neurons on which they synapse. _____ is when neurons postsynaptic to the damaged cell are affected. _____ is when neurons that are presynaptic to the damaged cell are affected.

Back 27

Transneuronal Degeneration
Anterograde Transneuronal Degeneration
Retrograde Transneuronal Degeneration

Front 28

Neural Damage: Regeneration
*Regrowth of the damaged neurons; ___ neurons can regenerate if they are placed in the PNS, whereas ___ neurons cannot regenerate in the CNS; the secrets to regeneration in the PNS appears to be the Schwann cells that form myelin sheaths in the PNS.
*Schwann cells promote regeneration by releasing both _____ (promote growth) and _____ (guide growing axons to targets).

Back 28

CNS
PNS

Trophic factors
Cell Adhesion Molecules

Front 29

Neural Damage: Reorganization
Damage to sensory and motor pathways, the sensory and motor cortices, and distortion of sensory experience have all been used to study _____ in adult mammals.
- Rapid reorganization of neural connections usually results from experience. This is believed to reflect the establishment of existing connections; and
- Gradual reorganization usually results from neural damage; this is believed to reflect the establishment of new connections via collateral sprouting.

Back 29

Neural Reorganization

Front 30

Neural Damage: Reorganization
_____ (related to education and intelligence) important in apparent recovery of cognitive function; seems to be due to the adoption of alternative strategies rather than true recovery of function.
Two general conclusions have emerged:
1) Small lesions are more likely to be associated with recovery of function than large lesions
2) Recovery of function is more likely in young patients

Back 30

Cognitive Reserve

Front 31

Neural Damage: Reorganization
Neuroplasticity and the Treatment of Nervous System: Any improvement after brain damage could reflect a decrease in cerebral _____ (brain swelling) rather than recovery from the neural damage.

Back 31

Edema

Front 32

Neural Damage: Blocking Neurodegeneration
Researchers have found that neurodegeneration normally caused by ischemia can be blocked by administration of viruses that release _____ protein; this blocked the loss of hippocampal cells and poor performance in the Morris water maze observed in untreated control rats.
Neurochemicals, such as _____ and _____, also block neurodegeneration.

Back 32

Apoptosis Inhibitor Protien
Nerve Growth Factor and Estrogen

Front 33

Neural Damage: Promoting Recovery by Neurotransplantation
What are the 3 and their significance?

Back 33

1) Fetal Tissue Implants - Based on successful transplants int eh primate MPTP model, doctors bilaterally implanted fetal substantia nigra cells into the striatum of Parkinson's patients.
2) Stem Cell Transplants - Stem cells are MULTIPOTENT (can develop into many different types of mature cells). Researchers are trying to use stem cell transplants to correct brain damage. Current research is focused on developing ways to isolate and propagate neural stem cells, to promote the survival and maturation of these cells one they are injected, to determine ways for encouraging the establishment of the correct connections, and for promoting functional recovery one the neural circuity has been restored.
3) Promotion of Recovery by Rehabilitative Training - Clear that experience can facilitate the functional reorganization of the CNS following damage. Following spinal cord injury in humans, people receiving rehabilitative training (physical and cognitive training) showed greater recovery of function (walking) than people that simply received conventional physiotherapy. About 50% of amputees suffer from phantom limb pain; surgical interventions notoriously poor at treating such pain, but can be reduced by encouraging reorganization of the areas of somatosensory cortex that previously innervated the amputated limb.