Biology 318 Lecture Test 2

Front 1

1.)One thing the nervous system and endocrine system have in common is?
2.)The NS communicates by a way of ____ while the endocrine systems communicates by how?
3.)The NS releases ___at synapses associated with a specific target cell while the endocrine system releases ___into bloodstream via capillary

Back 1

both are systems of regulation
electrical impulses and neurotransmitters, hormes
neurotransmitters, chemical substance hormones

Front 2

1.)The NS usually has a __and ___ effect which is more limited then the endocrine, while the endocrine has a?
2.)The NS usually reacts how to a stimulus?what about the endocrine system?
3.)The NS reacts relatively ___ to continuous stimulation while the endocrine system reacts relatively ___

Back 2

local/special, general/widespread
quickly (1-10 milliseconds), reacts slowly
quickly, slowly

Front 3

1.)Both endocrine and exocrine are ___tissue derieved from ___tissue
2.)Hormones are released into the blood via capillaries and the endocrine glands are very ___ and the capillary beds are modified and said to be fenestrated capillaries

Back 3

glandular, epithelial
vascularized

Front 4

1.)the endocrine system can be divided into what?
2.)___if it is affecting another type of cell and ___if it is affecting itself.
3.)The exocrine system use ___.
4.)what is a unicellular exocrine cell
5.)two shapes used in exocrine system

Back 4

paracrine, autocrine
paracrine, autocrine
ducts
goblet cell
tubular, aveolar

Front 5

1.)Something in the exocrine system can either be ___or ___also.
2.)The substances made by exocrine glands such as sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreas, liver(when making bile) all release their substances into a ___.
3.)another word for alveolar

Back 5

simple, compound
duct
acinar

Front 6

1.)3 types of exocrine glands
2.)former belief that the secretion was composed of bits of apical cytoplasm. Examples include mammary glands
3.)secretions is a mixture of cell fragments and substances of cell. Examples include oil and sebaceous
4.)What is oil?

Back 6

apocrine, holocrine, merocrine
apocrine
holocrine
dead cells

Front 7

1.)what does sebaceous mean?
2.)cell secretes substance via exocytosis, no part of gland is lost. Examples include salivary, pancreas and some kind of sweat glands.
3.)___are putting things outside of themselves and are not picked up by capillaries
4.)examples of local hormones

Back 7

glands in skin that secrete own cells
merocrine
local hormones
histamines, prostaglandins, nitric oxide

Front 8

1.)Example of a local hormone: In your nose if you are allergic to something it sets up a response in your nose only and is local because it does leave; creates a local inflammation and is usually useful.
2.)This type of local hormone resides in smooth muscle in the uterus, cramps that occur during the menstrual cycles are due to release of this

Back 8

histamines
prostaglandins

Front 9

1.)This type of local hormone is not a protein but it can be called a neurotransmitter and this along with the sympathetic system in the penis acts as a relaxer of blood vessels.
2.)__hormones are made by something and picked up by capillaries.
3.)With traditional hormones, the capillaries, in glandular tissue, have bigger holes than other capillaries and are considered ___(have bigger holes)

Back 9

nitric oxide
traditional
fenestrated

Front 10

1.)Traditional hormones are carried throughout the body to their destination via blood and some are proteins (___) and some may be ___and other things.
2.)basically, the difference between local and traditional hormones is?
3.)___means that the substance is not soluble in water. steroidal-based hormones such as testosterone are considered this and this makes a difference on how they are carried throughout their body

Back 10

insulin, steroids
locals are not picked up by capillaries but traditional is
hydrophobic

Front 11

1.)___means that the substance is soluble in water and insulin is consider this.
2.what are some organs making endocrine things?
3.)the skin makes?

Back 11

hydrophilic
skin, liver, kidneys, heart, stomach/small intestine, adipose tissue
calcitriol, kerationocytes

Front 12

1.)the liver makes?
2.)angiotensinogen does what?
3.)erythropietin does what?

Back 12

angiotensionogen, erythropietin, insulin-like growth factor
changes to angiotension I and constricts blood vessels to lower BP
runs to bone marrow and says start making RBC's

Front 13

1.)the kidneys make what?
2.)The heart makes what?
3.)Atrial natriunetic peptide (ANP) does what?
4.)the stomach/small intestines make what?
5.)Adipose tissue makes what?

Back 13

calcitriol, angiotension II, erythropietin
ANP
helps lower BP
gut hormones such as CCK, gastrin, seretin
leptine

Front 14

1.)leptine does what?
2.)All glands have ___capillaries
3.)Hydrophilic will usually be __while hydrophobic will usually be __.
4.)Their are some exceptions with being bound and unbound though, ___is not a steroid but comes from an amino acid and ___does not like water and is fat soluble

Back 14

regulates appetite
fenestrated
unbound, bound
thyroxin, tyrosine

Front 15

1.)Bound things are usually formed from a __but thyroxin is bound and not formed from this and it is derived from an ___.
2.)if you have a cell that just made insulin, the insulin will enter the capillary and is water-soluble and it can go right on into the what?
3.)__are much more vulnerable because they are just swimming along and their half-life is shorter

Back 15

cholesterol dervation, amine
plasma of the blood and can just float along
unbound

Front 16

1.)if something is __it will have a greater half-life and is less vulnerable.
2.)name the peptides.
3.)__are small peptides 3-10 linked amino acids
4.)Name some oligopeptides, these are tiny and unbound

Back 16

bound
oligopeptides, polypeptides
oligopeptides
angiotension II, ADH, cck, GnRH, oxytocin, TSHRH

Front 17

1.)__are 14-199 linked amino acids
2.)name some examples of polypeptides
3.)___have a carbohydrate attached to them and examples include TSH, LH, FSH
4.)___have identical alpha chaine of 92 AA's and variable beta chain and is made in the golgi apparatus

Back 17

polypeptides
ACTH, insulin, ANP, gastrin, GH, glucagon
glycoproteins
glycoproteins

Front 18

1.)___is an amino acid that retains an amine group and examples include dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin, melatonin, thyroxin.
2.)__are derived from cholesterol and is known as the short list.
3.)name some steroidal hormones

Back 18

monamines
steroidal hormones
progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone, thyroxin

Front 19

1.)what are the two main methods in which hormones work
2.)The ___method of hormone regulation is sometimes called the second messenger method.
3.)Hormones that work like cAMP are those at are ___soluble
4.)The hormones on the __list use the cAMP method.

Back 19

camp method, gene activating method
cAMP
water
long

Front 20

1.)Remember, not all first messenger hormones act like ___.
2.)___is not exactly the cAMP method, it is a variation on the theme.
3.)show a small flow chart starting with ATP.

Back 20

cAMP
insulin
ATP---cAMP---Protein kinase

Front 21

1.)a ___mechanism helps maintain a level of homeostasis.
2.)when talking about blood glucose levels, ___cells are the sensor on the positive that cause insulin to be release and __cells are on the negative side and make glucagon.

Back 21

feedback
beta, alpha

Front 22

1.)what does glucagon or insulin looks for on a target cell.
2.)when you eat a snicker bar and drink a Dr. Pepper your glucose level in ___fluid rises
3.)A sensor cell, for example beta cells or alpha cells release what?
4.)Once insulin is released, it becomes what?

Back 22

receptor
extracellular
beta cells release insulin and alpha cells release glucagon
first messenger

Front 23

1.)insulin leaves the beta cells and enters the blood via the ___capillaries unbound.
2.)Insulin is a ___hormone.
3.)Insulin then begins to look for a __cell with a receptor
4.)Insulin then binds to a target cell and an example of a target cell is what?

Back 23

fenestrated
traditional
target cell
adipose cell of the hip

Front 24

1.)The union of the first messenger with its receptor causes what?
2.)GTP is then converted to what?
3.)what happens when GTP is converted to GDP?
4.)Once GTP is converted to GDP, it awakes the "sleeping enzyme" which is what?

Back 24

g-protein to be activated
GDP
phosphate is chopped off
adenylate cyclase

Front 25

1.)adenylate cyclase is only turned on by the what?
2.)ATP comes from where in the cell?
3.)ATP is converted to what? it means that 2 phosphates are cut off
4.)AMP is turned into a cyclic form which is called?

Back 25

g-protein
mitochondria
AMP
cAMP

Front 26

1.)In order for ATP to be turned into cAMP, what must be awakened?
2.)What is our secondary messenger in this story?
3.)what are 6 things the secondary messenger can do?

Back 26

adenylate cyclase
cAMP
affect membrane potential, synthesize enzymes, turn molecules up or down, encourage secretion, encourage uptake, stimulate mitosis

Front 27

1.)what does cAMP turn on?
2.)what is a unique enzyme for unique enzymes for chemical reactions or activities
3.)each protein kinase is __for each cell
4.)Once cAMP has turned on protein kinase, it must be destroyed typically by what?

Back 27

protein kinases
protein kinases
unique
phosphodiesterase

Front 28

1.)In our alpha cell example, it could stimulate what?
2.)In our beta cell example, it could do what?

Back 28

mitosis, or encourage uptake of something or opening of a channel
encourage secretion

Front 29

1.)___hormone is water-soluble and it stimulates mitosis
2.)___will go to osteoblast and make it release H+ ions or enzyme to break down collagen fibers. Remember this hormone increases calcium and decrease phosphates

Back 29

growth hormone
parathormone

Front 30

***STORY
1.)If we havent eaten all day and our level lowers, the sensor would be ___in the islets of the pancreas.
2.)what would be the first messenger?
3.)what does glucagon do?

Back 30

alpha cells
glucagon
encourages release of glucose or the breakdown of glycogen

Front 31

1.)glucose can go into the cell and the cell could use the glucose for ___.
2.)A ___feedback mechanism will keep going and never return to standard and is sometimes catastrophic.
3.)An example of a positive feedback mechanism stopped by a negative feedback mechanism is what?

Back 31

energy
positive
blood clot

Front 32

1.)The ___of hormone regulation consist of hormones that are not water-soluble and mostly steroidal.
2.)what are the 6 gene activating hormones?
3.)recall that ___is not a steroid base hormone

Back 32

gene activating method
progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone, thyroxin
thyroxin

Front 33

***STORY
1.)Lets say estrogen levels are low. The sensor in this case will pick up on this level in the?
2.)The hypothalamus will then make __which is water soluble (cAMP)
3.)The FSHRH will go down to the anterior pituitary and attach to a receptor on its target cell(___) and cAMP will happen

Back 33

hypothalamus
FSHRH
gonadotroph

Front 34

1.)Next protein kinases are activated and __is made.
2.)FSH will now go to the ___ and in here will be an egg and flat cells called follicle cells.
3.)FSH is ___and slips out of the capillary and looks for a receptor on the follicle cell and it will be the cAMP method and it will tell the cell to make estrogen and possibly grow in size (mitosis)

Back 34

FSH
ovary
unbound

Front 35

1.)Now that estrogen is made, it will slip out of the cell and go into the ___.
2.)The estrogen will then go to an adipose cell in the hip (because the cell membrane is made of fat and estrogen is ___) and the cells knows estrogen has been made because of the unique nature of the receptor

Back 35

blood
fat-soluble

Front 36

1.)Where can the receptor for estrogen be?
2.)if the estrogen does not find a receptor what happens?
3.)Estrogen will now work as a true gene-activating hormone and "___"and tell DNA to turn on and tells it specially what to do.
4.)Usually the estrogen will be telling the ___ and it goes out and commands the making of certain things such as enzymes for storage such as having enough fat for a sustainable pregnancy.

Back 36

in the cytoplasm of the cell or even the nucleus
get out of there
crack the genetic whip
mRNA

Front 37

1.)what is the tRNA's job there?
2.)PIP2 is a __signaling mechanism
3.)Hormones involved in the PIP2 calcium signaling mechanism. there are 5
4.)The PIP2 Calcium signaling mechanism is considered to be a variation on the ___theme

Back 37

make amino acids click together
calcium
TRH, ADH, GnRH, Oxytocin, Epinephrine
cAMP

Front 38

1.)The enzyme __splits the plasma membrane(phospholipid PIP2) into DAG(diagcylglycerol) and IP3 (inositol triphosphate)

Back 38

phospholipase

Front 39

****This is the DAG Pathway
1.)A hormone binds to its receptor activating a ___
2.)The g-protein migrates to a ___molecule and activates it.
3.)Phospholipase removes the ___from the head of the membrane phospholipid leaving the DAG which remains embedded in the plasma membrane.
4.)___activates protein kinases

Back 39

g-protein
phospholipase
phosphate-containing group
DAG

Front 40

***IP3 Pathway
1.)The phosphate containing group from the above story but for this story is?
2.)___raises calcium concentration in the cytosol and calcium is released from intracellular storage cites.
3.)The calcium acts like a ___ or __messenger
4.)why can it be considered a 3rd messenger?
5.)if you have trouble internally with calcium levels, you would not want to use the ___

Back 40

IP3
IP3
2nd, 3rd
second messenger would be IP3
IP3

Front 41

1.)activates protein kinases like cAMP
2.)causes release of intracellular calcium from the storage and the calcium acts like a second messenger

Back 41

DAG
IP3

Front 42

1.)The nervous system is not primary a method of __for hormones
2.)every ___is affected by the nervous system, especially the autonomic nervous system
3.)what is the workhorse vessel?
4.)blood vessels have muscles in them and is penetrated by ___system only and is affected by ___

Back 42

control
gland
arteriole
sympathetic , epinephrine

Front 43

1.)Medication to block the epinephrine could lower what?
2.)A ___is given to lower the blood volume.
3.)trying to maintain standard or hormone level; these relationships include the relationship between insulin and glucagon or parathormone and thyrocalcitonin.

Back 43

blood pressure
diuretic
humoral

Front 44

1.)control of hormone when the presence or absence of hormones affects another hormone.
2.)The __has large pairs of nuclei and has a job to effect behavior because of its ability to control the anterior pituitary.
3.)order of how hormones travel in anterior pituitary

Back 44

hormonal
hypothalamus
neurosecretory cells---fenestrated capillary beds---hyposeal portal vessel---2nd capillary bed--target cell

Front 45

1.)what does portal mean?
2.)on the posterior pituitary, how do things travel?
3.)after the hormones go down the hyposeal tract, they are stored where?
4.)name two different groups of target cells and how are they classified?

Back 45

capillary-vessel-capillary
supraoptic/periventricular--hyposeal tract--herring bodies--then to capillaries
herring bodies
chromophils are stained and chromophobes are not

Front 46

1.)name two types of chromophils
2.)name the types of target cells

Back 46

basophil(blue stain), acidophil(pink stain)
gonadotropes, corticotropes, thyrotropes, lactotropes, somatotropes

Front 47

1.)name the two target cells that are acidophils
2.)name the three target cells that are basophils
3.)what do the somatotropes produce?
4.)what do the lactropes produce?
5.)what do the thyrotropes produce?
6.)what do the corticotropes produce?

Back 47

somatotrope, lactrope
thyrotropes, corticotropes, gonadotropes
GHRH, GHIH
PRH, PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone)
TSHRH
CRH or ACTHRH

Front 48

1.)what do the gonadotropes produce?
2.)in order to stop doing something, the hormone ___(made by sertoli cells) must tell the hypothalamus to stop releasing the hormone
3.)when is a natural inclination for growth hormone to be released?

Back 48

FSHRH, LHRH. ICSHRH
inhibin
when you are sleeping at night

Front 49

1.)what would happen if you have low growth hormone?

Back 49

cells make GHRH, GHRH targets somatotrope in anterior pituitary, GH gets into blood with no carrier, targets cartilage bone and fat.

Front 50

1.)what happens when growth hormone targets a skeletal muscle?

Back 50

it will find its receptor on the outside and cAMP happens and the message could say to increase in size (make actin and myosin) or increase in number (mitosis)

Front 51

1.)___and ___ hormones are the only ones that have both an inhibiting and releasing hormone and are the only ones classified as acidophils.
2.)the level of GH or any other hormone is sensed by the __and once the level is normal, it will stop releasing the factor.

Back 51

growth hormone, prolactin
hypothalamus

Front 52

1.)the supraoptic nucleus consist of what?
2.)what do osmoreceptor cells do?
3.)osmoreceptor cells represent every place in your body except?
4.)The adrenal medulla has a constantly existing __of high salute, from 300-400 to 800-1200 miliosmoles.

Back 52

osmoreceptors
determine the solute level in the body
adrenal medulla
gradient

Front 53

1.)the percentage of salt in the osmoreceptor cell body should be ___%
2.)If it is isotonic, the outside must be ___%
3.)If the outside happens to be 1% it would have a __osmotic pressure because there is solute and less water outside (the inside has less solute and more water.)

Back 53

0.9
0.9
greater

Front 54

1.)The osmoreceptors get cranky and kick the neurosecretory cells creating an action potential, we must remember the neurosecretory cells have already made ADH and they are stored in the __.
2.)There is a ___disruption and tells ADH to get out and is released into a capillary and goes to the tube in the adrenal medulla

Back 54

herring bodies
voltage

Front 55

1.)ADH is on the long list and will act like cAMP, binds to a receptor, and makes the cell form ___(little holes) and allows water to escape through the holes if there is a gradient.
2.)If the outside of the osmoreceptor cell body happens to be 0.5%, and inside is 0.9%, water will go where?
3.)if there is more solute, there is less what?
4.)the cell will not get cranky and it won't send out __and you will get rid of fluid. this is when you drink alcohol and it dries out your cells and says to not make ADH

Back 55

aquapores
into the cell
water
ADH

Front 56

1.)Lots of __is required to maintain the gradient
2.)ADH(anterograde) has a carrier molecule called __.
3.)why do people have high blood pressure?

Back 56

ATP
neurophysin
they aren't getting rid of enough fluid and their blood volume goes up, they would need a strong diuretic

Front 57

1.)oxytocin is made in both males and females in the ___ and transported down and stored in the __and has a unique carrier.
2.)What does oxytocin do in females?

Back 57

periventricular nucleus, herring body
stimulates contraction of smooth muscle of uterus and stimulates myoepithelial cells in ducts of the breast.

Front 58

1.)what does oxytocin do in males?
2.)what is the most prevalent hormone produced by the anterior pituitary?

Back 58

sexual arousal, movement of sperm in the male passageway, once sperm gets into the female, it facilitates the proper movement of sperm for greater chances of fertilization.
Growth Hormone

Front 59

1.)GH does not have a specific target, it has many and what are they?
2.)__are released by the hypothalamus and goes to a somatotrope(target cell)
3.)GH's half-life?
4.)GH causes promotion of __and growth of cells

Back 59

muscle cells, bone cells, cartilage cells, fat cells
GHRH, GHIH
6-10minutes
mitosis

Front 60

1.)GH acts like __ and is a __.
2.)GH works directly on the cells or indirectly going to the live to make liver produce ___ or somatomedin and the half life of this is?
3.)The __is both endocrine and exocrine and is the metabolic capital of your body.

Back 60

cAMP, polypeptide
insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1), 20 hours
liver

Front 61

1.)the liver also encourages the formation of hormones that do what?
2.)The liver makes ___which is a osmotic pressure regulator of your body
3.)one effect of GH is it encourages protein synthesis by formation of ___(uptake of AA)

Back 61

regulate how many RBC's you will make
albumin
mRNA

Front 62

1.)Effects of growth hormone discourage __which means breaking down something.
2.)another effect of GH is it encourages fat cells to breakdown fat into ___for energy of other cells.
3.)another effect of GH is it promotes ___ retention in the kidney

Back 62

catabolism
glycerol and fatty acids
Na, K, CL

Front 63

1.)another effect of GH is it encourages __ absorption from the intestines.
2.)__is released during deep sleep
3.)What does GH do to a target cell?

Back 63

Ca
GH
doesnt have a specific target cell but either targets a fat cell, muscle cell, bone, or cartilage and causes the promotion of mitosis and growth in these tissue cells

Front 64

1.)The thyroid gland has __lobes with an ___of tissue in between.
2.)The thyroid gland is very __
3.)A follicle contains several __cells
4.)Scattered between several follicles is a connective tissue and clumps of cells called?

Back 64

2, isthmus
vascular
follicle
parafollicular or C-cells

Front 65

1.)In the middle of the follicle space is a center filled with __of ___.
2.)thyroid hormones made by follicle cells.
3.)__is more concentrated while __is more prevalent
4.)Talking about percentages, the thyroid hormone makes __% t3 and __% t4.

Back 65

colloidal suspensory, iodinated thyroglobin
T3(triiodothyronine), T4(thyroxin
T3, T4
10, 90

Front 66

1.)function of T3
2.)function of T4
3.)C-cells or parafollicular cells make what?
4.)thyrocalcitonin works with the ___in a humoral relationship

Back 66

increases metabolic rate of CHO, fats, and proteins for food.
increases heat/temperature
thyrocalcitonin
parathormone

Front 67

1.)thyrocalcitonin suppresses ___pump activity
2.)thyrocalcitonin increases ___pump activity
3.)thyrocalcitonin ___osteoclast numbers
4.)parathormones targets

Back 67

osteoclasts
osteoblast
reduces
intestines, bone, kidney

Front 68

1.)parathormones job in intestines
2.)parathormones job in bone
3.)parathormones job in kidney

Back 68

increaes Calcium/decreases phosphate
osteocytic membrane system
phosphate membrane system

Front 69

***thyroid mechanism for releasing T3 & T4
1.)follicle cell absorbs ___via a pumper from the capillary that has I- in it.
2.)The pumps used are unique and not located anywhere else in the body and they are capable of taking the ___from the blood and putting them into the cell.

Back 69

I- ionic iodine
iodine

Front 70

1.)The I- is then secreted into the lumen(the colloidal suspension in the center) and I- is changed to ___.
2.)At the same time that everything is happening with the I-, the follicle cells are busy making ___
3.)thyroglobulin is made of ___AA

Back 70

I2
thyroglobulin
123 thyrosine

Front 71

1.)Thyroglobulin is considered big compare to T3 and T4 which is only ___AA's.
2.)once thyroglobulin is made, it is put into the ___.
3.)Thyroglobulin is then combined with ___in the lumen.

Back 71

4-8
lumen
I2

Front 72

1.)TSH binding tells the ___to uptake droplets of I2 thyroglobulin via pinocytosis.
2.)If you have low levels of T4, ___is released going to the anterior pituitary,
3.)After TSHRH gets to the anterior pituitary, __is released and attaches to the outside of a follicle cell

Back 72

follicle cell
TSHRH
TSH

Front 73

1.)The __messenger runs around and encourages the cell membrane to take droplets of iodinated thyroglobulin to bring into the cell(pinocytosis because it is picking up droplets)
2.)___cleave T3 and T4 out and put into the blood(bound)

Back 73

second
lysosomes

Front 74

1.)hyperthyroidism is the release of too much what?
2.)To prevent hyperthyroidism, medications could go to the pumpers and prevent TSH from attaching, and if it cant attach, then the amount of T3 and T4 will be decreased and these medicines could affect enzymes in the ___

Back 74

T4
liver

Front 75

1.)Some people could removed their thyroid, but it is very vascularized and it is very serious and can only be directly removed if you have ___
2.)___can go to the thyroid and destroy the follicles, not any cell in your body can pick up on this except for follicle cells so it destroys the thyroid and what isn't picked up is released through the ___
3.)the radiation will destroy the follicles and completely stop production of?

Back 75

cancer
radioactive iodine, kidneys
T3, T4

Front 76

1.)The storage molecule of T3 and T4 is ___.
2.)__weather causes more thyroid hormone to be released, remember thyroxin produces heat.
3.)We want to burn __first, then __. Proteins aren't best to burn as clean fuel.

Back 76

iodinated thyroglobulin
cold
CHO, fats

Front 77

1.)People with hyperthyroidism lose so much weight because they are burning up and begin to turn to __and break down protein for energy.
2.)hot all the time, even in the winter
3.)when females have problems getting pregnant and males have problems with depression

Back 77

muscle
hyperthyroidism
hypothyroidism

Front 78

1.)Thyroid hormone can cause increase in activity of __, ___, __, and ___
2.)Increase in activity in digestive means(___), while an increase in cardiovascular means?

Back 78

digestive, cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory systems
eating more, blood volume goes up then makes blood pressure go up and causes your heart to beat more(tachycardia and arrhythmia)

Front 79

1.)heart rate that exceeds the normal range
2.)a disorder of the heart rate, or heart rhythm.
3.)another term for thyrocalcitonin
4.)The role of parafollicular or C-cells is to?
5.)parafollicular cells suppresses __which destroy bone and minerals, they are free and go into the blood, you don't want these to be busy working.

Back 79

tachycardia
arrhythmia
calcitonin
release thyrocalcitonin
osteoclast

Front 80

1.)Parafollicular cells increase ___ which take existing minerals out of the blood plasma and put it into bone, lowering the level.
2.)Fewer osteoclast means?
3.)Where is the parathyroid located?

Back 80

osteoblast
less breakdown
back of the thyroid

Front 81

1.)As an adult, ___is the most important controller of mineral level.
2.)What are the two types of cells in the parathyroid gland?
3.)What produces parathormone?

Back 81

parathormone
chief cells, oxyphils
chief cells

Front 82

1.)What is the main job of the parathormone?
2.)___will be released due to a low level of calcium and phosphates
3.)There is nothing coming from the hypothalamus because parathormone has a __relationship.

Back 82

increase calcium, decrease phosphates
parathormone
humoral

Front 83

1.)osteoclast are turned on and releases ___ions (dissolving the minerals) and an enzyme that breaks down ___, this enzyme is produced by the osteoclast and the raw materials can be reused.
2.)when osteoclast are turned on in bone,calcium will __and phosphates will ___

Back 83

H+, collagen
increase, increase

Front 84

1.)___membrane system helps maintain calcium level and that level must be kept just right, the biggest problem is ___.
2.)Recall that inside the ___is the osteoclast
3.)Between the osteocyte and the space wall is ___

Back 84

osteocytic, muscle contraction problems
lacuna
extracellular fluid

Front 85

1.)There is compact bone all around the lacunae and __and __are on top of them.
2.)The extensions around the cell are called?
3.)When you want to absorb medication, its easier to absorb it as a __then a __ because it encourages minerals that are already dissolved to go into blood

Back 85

collagen, minerals
canaliculi
liquid, solid

Front 86

1.)In order for us to get the calcium an phosphates out of milk to get through the cells, you must have ___, which activates vitamin D that may be artificially put into the milk and the minerals can be carried out of the intestine and into the blood.
2.)Parathormone in the intestines __calcium and ___phosphates.

Back 86

parathormone
increases, increases

Front 87

1.)Parathormone in the kidney tubules uptake __and __phosphates.
2.)Potential problems in kidney: You never want super __solution of calcium and phosphates because calcium could settle out as ___

Back 87

calcium, decrease or pump out
saturated, crystals

Front 88

1.)__is the settling out of uric acid in joints, very painful. You do not want a lot of minerals to settle out as a precipitate, having the __pumped out in the kidney helps prevent that from happening
2.)the phosphate that goes into the potential urine will act as a __

Back 88

gout, phosphates
buffer

Front 89

1.)what is another word for radioactive iodine?
2.)what are the three buffer systems?
3.)the pancreas is located where?
4.)The pancreas is a __and __gland.
5.)Beta cells secrete what?

Back 89

oblation
bicarbonate, phosphate, intracellular
behind stomach
endocrine, exocrine
insulin

Front 90

1.)alpha cells secretes what?
2.)delta cells secretes what?
3.)what does not need insulin?
4.)What is insulins target cells?
5.)Insulin is not a true example of cAMp, insulin docks with a different cell receptor(____.)

Back 90

glucagon
GHIH(somatostatin)
liver, brain, kidney, RBC's
muscle, fat, connective tissue cells
a tyrosine-kinase enzyme

Front 91

1.)Recall that the __is the metabolic capital of the body and insulin goes to ___and tells the body to take the glucose to turn into fatty acids.
2.)The liver cells are genetically determined (____)
3.)too much glucose makes liver convert into __, __, or ___, which will be transported as LDL's, HDL's, and VLDL's

Back 91

liver, hepatocytes
LDL's, HDL's, VLDL's
fats, triglycerides, cholesterol

Front 92

1.)insulin encourages __uptake through pores
2.)insulin keeps glucose in cells for immediate energy release (convert __ or __to keep glucose out of blood plasma)
3.)Insulin also encourages __uptake and __synthesis.

Back 92

glucose
glycogen, fat
Amino acid, protein

Front 93

****Go over in Book things pancreas can cause, acidosis, atheroselerous, high BP, Neuropathy, thirst, voiding (urination), weakness, HDL, LDL

Back 93

review

Front 94

1.)the adrenal gland is more of a __system structure
2.)only the __of the adrenal gland is considered to be an endocrine gland
3.)__are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons and are modified because they do not have any real axons or dendrites.

Back 94

nervous
cortex
chromaffin cells

Front 95

1.)When chromaffin cells are zapped, these cells will release the neurotransmitter __and affects a clump of cells which release ___ .
2.)fight or flight occurs when __is released
3.)The preganglionic sympathetic neurons pass through the ___ganglion and terminate in number __, the medulla of the adrenal gland.

Back 95

acetylcholine, epinephrine or norepinephrine
epinephrine, norepinephrine
collateral, 4

Front 96

1.)three parts of the adrenal cortex
2.)the zona glomerulosa releases what?
3.)the zona glomerulosa also produces the hormone __which saves/inceases sodium and decreases what?
4.)the zona fasciculate releases what?

Back 96

zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculate, zona reticularis
mineral corticoids (mostly Na and K)
aldosterone, potassium
glucocorticoids

Front 97

1.)the glucocorticoids produces what?
2.)the zona recticularis releases what?
3.)gonadocortiocids produces what?
4.)the medulla produces modified sympathetic ___cells (lacking axons and dendrites) that release epinephrine for fight/flight response.

Back 97

cortisol(stress hormone)
gonadocorticoids
estrogen & androgen
chromaffin

Front 98

1.)aldosterone, which is produced by the zona glomerulsa, increases ___and decreases ___.
2.)aldosterone targets the ___. and it is on the short list
3.)aldosterone goes into the nucleus of cells an cracks he genetic whip and effects __or__.
4.)Aldosterone will make sure __is retained and potassium is pumped out.

Back 98

sodium, potassium
kidney
pumpers or enzymes
sodium

Front 99

1.)If your homeostatic mechanism perceives that your K level is high, it will go over to the __and say release aldosterone, keeping sodium and water in it.
2.)The cells of the DCT are the ___cells and in between are ___ cells.
3.)The muscle cells of the DCT release ___mostly by afferent

Back 99

zona glomerulosa
macula densa, mesengial cells
renin

Front 100

1.)If you have healthy livers, it is making ___.
2.)This is when the body perceives low blood pressure. Angiotensinogen is running around in the blood plasma and as the filtrate runs through the DCT, the ___cells can perceive a problem and they tell the __cells (messenger cells) and it tells the muscle cells to release renin.

Back 100

angiotensiogen
macula densa, mesengial

Front 101

1.)___will act upon angiotensinogen and turn it into __
2.)Angiotensin is made by the __
3.)Angiotensin I runs around in the blood and when it gets to the lungs, inside the capillaries of lung tissue will be a converting enzyme, which will convert angiotensin I to ___, which is a great vasoconstrictor and will tell arterioles to constrict increasing BP

Back 101

renin, angiotensin I
liver
angiotensin II

Front 102

1.)After 1-3 minutes, ___(which is floating around) destroys angiotensin II because you could actually constrict a little too much.
2.)when blood vessels constrict, what happens to BP?
3.)If you have low blood volume, you must do what?
4.)If you have more angiotensin II circulating more than usual, it will tell the zona glomerulosa to solve the low blood problem and release __(keeping a sodium and water-elevating blood pressure)

Back 102

angiotensinogenase
BP increases
making more blood
aldosterone

Front 103

1.)what does ACTHRH have to do with the adrenal gland?
2.)what hormone could ACTH eventually affect?
3.)the number one way in which the body handles stress is the production of __.
4.)stress is picked up and perceived by the ___

Back 103

eventually makes cortisol
aldosterone
cortisol
hypothalamus

Front 104

1.)3 stages of stress
2.)__is the first source of energy
3.)increased ___levels raise to help raise BP by constricting blood vessels.
4.)___levels rise to increase blood volume to prepare for potential fluid loss from sweating or bleeding

Back 104

hypothalamus receives stress, resistance, response
glycogen
angiotension
aldosterone

Front 105

1.)after glycogen stores are used, body goes into the resistance stage which encourages the use of alternative fuels which is ACTRH--->___
2.)___promotes the breakdown of fat to glycerol and fatty acids for gluconeogenesis by using non-carbohydrates for energy in the breakdown of fatty acids

Back 105

cortisol
cortisol

Front 106

1.)cortisol inhibits ___uptake and thus has a glucose sparing effect
2.)long term exposure to increased levels of cortisol reduces __by inhibiting release of leukotrienes which affects B & T cell activity (Killer T cells lose their ability to be viscious)
3.)Long term exposure to increased levels of cortisol also has what affects?

Back 106

glucose
immunity
poor wound healing susceptibility to cancer and infection

Front 107

1.)What are other affects of long term exposure to increased levels of cortisol.
2.)what is ghrelin?
3.)Insulin makes you feel what?
4.)the third stage of stress is the __phase, which is when it starts using protein for energy, adrenal burnout

Back 107

suppresses sex hormones, increased ghrelin, increased insulin
intestinal hormone that stimulates hunger
hungry
exhaustion

Front 108

1.)majority of the pancreas is an __gland, composed of cells that release digestive juices.
2.)what is type two diabetes?
3.)if beta cells are destroyed, it cannot make?
4.)why wouldn't glucose be able to get into the cell?

Back 108

exocrine
a persons typical target cells cannot get glucose to enter
insulin
beta cells may have been destroyed, insulin may not recognize its target

Front 109

1.)since the glucose cannot get into the cell, it accumulates in the blood plasma and when the blood passes through the __, its job is to pump out all the extra glucose.
2.)every time a sugar goes into your urine, __must follow
3.)people with type __diabetes will have sugar in their urine and they will have a lot more urine than the average person

Back 109

kidney
water
1

Front 110

A type __diabetic will always have a slighty elevated glucose all the time.
2.)over long periods of time, the elevated glucose interferes with the persons inability to ___.
3.)High glucose also sets the stage for them to be more susceptible to __infections

Back 110

2
heal
yeast

Front 111

1.)___makes you feel full.
2.)the most important and most harmful side effects of diabetes is?
3.)each cell will break down the fat and a lot of the intermediate metabolic end products are going to be

Back 111

leptin
glucose cannot get into the cell and be broken down to clean fuel(CO2, ATP, water) so instead fat will enter
acids

Front 112

1.)we tend to have more problems with __then __.
2.)if you are having a heart attack or having spasms of the muscles, you are making ___.
3.)if you are burning fat, aside from acidosis, you are overburning your system and potentially making ___.

Back 112

acidosis, alkalosis
acids
LDL's and VLDL's

Front 113

1.)LDL have a huge piece of fat being carried around in the blood vascular system by what?
2.)if the fat is too heavy for the carrier protein, it gets held up in the lining of your blood vessels and forms what?
3.)atherosclerosis does what to blood vessels?

Back 113

small carrier
plaque
narrow and it leads leads to high BP

Front 114

1.)purpose of the respiratory system?

Back 114

take air and bring it into alveolar sacs so that the oxygen passes through the respiratory members, enters the blood-vascular system, and goes to all cells of the body

Front 115

1.)What is the product of cellular respiration?
2.)what will happen to the CO2?

Back 115

CO2
picked up by blood and carried to heart, lung, then released

Front 116

1.)flow of air

Back 116

external nares--nostril--nasal cavity--internal nares--nasopharynx--laryngopharynx--larynx--trachea--right and left bronchi--primary bronchi--secondary bronchi--tertiary bronchi--bronchioles--terminal bronchioles--respiratory bronchioles

Front 117

1.)where is air exchanged with the blood system?
2.)all around the surface of the aveolar sacs are?
3.)if you push down the diaphragm and pull out the ribs, you are __the size of the alveolar sac
4.)if you are increasing the size of the sac, you are __the pressure

Back 117

respiratory bronchioles
capillaries
increasing
decreasing

Front 118

1.)The air outside is weighing on your nose(__mmhg)
2.)If you want the outside air to go through our passageways to get to the aveoli sacs, we must __the pressure
3.)The intrapleural pressure will always be __(___mhg)

Back 118

760
decrease
negative, -4

Front 119

1.)The __nerve allows the diaphragm to contract.
2.)where does the phrenic nerve come from?
3.)inspiration is considered an ___process while exhalation is considered a __process.
4.)when you inhale, you have to send a message to the brain, when you exhale you ___

Back 119

phrenic
cervical plexus
active, passive
do not

Front 120

1.)we eventually replace the psuedostratified squamous in the trachea with __all the way at the end of the "tree".
2.)Two reasons we must have a tree effect system?(remember bronchioles divide like trees)
3.)If you bring a lot of air forcefully and it enters a lung without all the branching slowing it down, the lung would ___

Back 120

simple squamous
increase surface area for adequate gas exchange, to slow air down
blow up

Front 121

1.)The only way to slow down the gas is?
2.)The bronchioles are made of smooth muscle with different ___because you want them to respond differently sometimes (constriction, dilation)
3.)Once the air makes it to the alveolar sac, there is a chance the gas(oxygen) can be exchanged with a capillary and enter the blood and this is called.

Back 121

friction
receptors
respiratory bronchiole

Front 122

1.)the relationship between the alveolar sac and a piece of capillary is called?
2.)Two watery, serousy membranes are the __and __
3.)The potential space which lies between the visceral(lining lung) and parietal pleura (lining thoracic cavity) is called

Back 122

respiratory membrane
visceral pleura, parietal pleura
intrapleural space

Front 123

1.)The pressure around the alveolar sac is known as ___.
2.)The visceral and parietal pleura are ___membranes so that the visceral adheres to the parietal.
3.)what allows these two serous membranes to hang around together and adhere to one another and maintain no free space is the fact that?

Back 123

intrapulmonary pressure
serous
you must keep this space at a negative pressure

Front 124

1.)If you are just resting, the pressure in the potential space will always have __pressure compared to what is in the intrapulmonary and world outside.
2.)You must have a __pressure in the space to keep it as a potential space and not a real space
3.)Air outside weights what?

Back 124

less
negative
760mmhg

Front 125

1.)We must maintain ___mmhg less than the outside, or else the alveolar sacs of the lungs would collapse
2.)at sea level, air is a mixture of gases: __% nitrogen, __oxygen, and __% other stuff
3.)nitrogen is not __at sea level

Back 125

4
78, 21, 1
soluble

Front 126

1.)being the atmosphere air is 760mmgh, the PO2 will be __mmhg.
2.)when you inhale, what is happening to your diaphragm and lungs?
3.)two factors that help us maintain the space

Back 126

159
diaphragm goes down lungs expand(sacs getting big)and under less pressure
pulling lung to thoracic wall, pull lung away from thoracic wall

Front 127

1.)when the lung is being pulled to the thoracic wall, __pressure is in the alveolar sac.
2.)the natural __of tissues pulls the lung away from the thoracic wall
3.)in premature babies, in their __cells, it does not make __which is a detergent.
4.)If the baby is not making surfactant, what must happen

Back 127

positive
recoiling
type II, surfactant
it has to spend lot of energy to keeps the sacs inflated

Front 128

1.)90% if patients who have breathing problems in the ER will go because of __problems.
2.)People with __ instead of having nice alveolar sacs, they have rounded ones and they have decreased their what and destroyed what, so now the air gets trapped

Back 128

expiration
emphysema, surface area, elastic fibers

Front 129

1.)In the alveolar sac, you would think the PO2 would be 159 mmHg, but when air passes through these muscousy membranes passageways, some of the oxygen is used to help lining cells and by the time it gets to the alveolar sac, it will be about ___mmHg.

Back 129

104

Front 130

1.)The PCO2 at the alveolar sac is about ___mmHG
2.)deoxygenated blood comes from where?
3.)the PO2 in the capillaries from deoxygenated blood is __mmHg and it will also have the highest level of PCO2 which is ___mmgh

Back 130

39-40
right ventricle
40, 45-46

Front 131

1.)When the blood passes through, it stays in the capillaries for __seconds
2.)oxygenated blood will leave the capillary near the alveolar sac and is considered clean and the PO2 level is ___mmHg and the CO2 level is __mmHg
3.)the blood goes through the capillary and then to where?

Back 131

1-3
101, 40
left atrium, left ventricle, out the aorta then anywhere

Front 132

1.)pnemotaxic __while apneustic ___
2.)When air comes in,it tries to get across the respiratory membrane, however, there is a law of what?
3.)what is the law of partial pressure
4.)If you are diving below sea level, __willbe able to go through the membrane and into your blood because it is soluble

Back 132

inhibits, stimulates
partial pressure
how much pressure is exerted by certain gases
nitrogen

Front 133

1.)what do you want in the respiratory membrane?
2.)two types of cells in alveolar sacs and what is there histology
3.)there is an optical thickness of the respiratory membrane, if it is too thick the diffusion of oxygen is __ and if its too thin then __will happen

Back 133

machrophages, elastic fibers, mast cells, fibroblast, plasmacells
Type I (simple squamous) Type II (simple cuboidal)
decrease, water and fluids will move in

Front 134

1.)what do mast cells do?
2.)nitrogen is mostly what?
3.)when you bring in air, you get __% oxygen 159mmHg, and __% CO2

Back 134

adjust thinness and thickness of cell
exhaled
21, 0.04

Front 135

****GO READ HIGHLIGHT PART OF NOTES UNDER "MOVEMENT OF O2 AND CO2" and a couple of pages later too

Back 135

///

Front 136

1.)solubility of nitrogen __, oxygen ___, carbon dioxide __.
2.)we don't have t have an extremely huge gradient to get carbon dioxide across the membrane because why?
3.)the PO2 in your big toe is __mmHg and the PCO2 is __mmHg ,clean and oxygenated
4.)if we'd always have blood in our capillaries, we'd have no what?

Back 136

0.5, 1, 20
it is very soluble
101, 40
blood pressure

Front 137

1.)if blood goes into a capillary, it goes through the __
2.)our bodies decide if we should put blood into the capillary beds or not, the deciding factor to use a capillary bed depends if the tissues show what?
3.)If the precapillary sphincter decides to open, the PO2 will be __mmHg and the PCO2 will be __mmHg

Back 137

pericapillary sphincter
high PCO2, low PO2, Low pH, high temperature
40, 45

Front 138

1.)since we cannot have blood in all the capillary beds at one time ,some of them have to stay closed and if they are closed the blood goes through into a __
2.)The PO2 in the thoroughfare is __-while the PCO2 will be ___
3.)the __is the effect of high acidity that encourages removal of oxygen from the heme of the RBC.

Back 138

thoroughfare
101, 40
Bohr effect

Front 139

1.)how many time do we breathe per minute
2.)In the medulla we have the medullary rhythmicity center or __
3.)The dorsal was considered ___ while ventral was considered __
4.)coming from the dorsal clump is the ___which leads to the phrenic nerve

Back 139

12-16 times
dorsal regulatory group
inspiratory, expiratory
cervical plexus

Front 140

1.)the circuit goes __seconds on __seconds off
2.)the pontine group makes sure what?
3.)while you are inspiring, you send a message to the expiratory saying what?
4.)also while you are inspiring, you send a message to where to make the diaphragm move?

Back 140

2, 3
every breathe you take is rhythmic, flowing, and not halting
do not interfere
phrenic nerve

Front 141

1.)7 factors affecting breathing rate
2.)__are found in the walls of your aortic arches and are receptrs that pick up on the level of oxygen and when oxygen level goes too low (below 60mmHg) it will make you breathe more

Back 141

limbic system, CSF method, cortex, irritants,deflation reflex, hering-brauer stretch receptors, peripheral chemoreceptors
peripheral chemoreceptors

Front 142

1.)what helps you control so that you don't breathe too much out?
2.)Pulmonary circulation

Back 142

deflation reflex
Pulmonary trunk--left/right pulmonary artery--enter hilus of lung--branch--respiratory membrane--venule--4 pulmonary veins--left membrane

Front 143

1.)5 important things regarding circulation to the lungs.
2.)what ventricle of the heart is thickest?
3.)why is right ventricle less thicker than left?
4.)Why is the left ventricle thicker?

Back 143

1.)muscle thickness of right ventricle, accomodation, shunting, dry lung, metabolically active
2.)left ventricle
3.)dont want it blowing out the capillaries and alveolar sacs
4.)goes to rest of the body

Front 144

1.)the blood vessels in the lung circulation to the alveolar sac (pulmonary circulation) can accept increases and decreases in the amount of __and __in there.
2.)__have the ability to shunt by sending blood to where it needs to be
3.)if you just ate and now you have to run, shunting of the blood will shift to __instead of digestive system

Back 144

blood, pressure
arterioles
muscle cells

Front 145

1.) a condition in which a person bleeds too much and cannot stop the flow of blood.
2.)a hole or a small passage which moves, or allows movement of fluid from one part of the body to another.
3.)If you have a __or __, blood will be shunted to other working areas, areated areas (introduce air into )

Back 145

hemorrhage
shunt
tumor, pnemonia

Front 146

1.)__is considered to be a normal condition of the lung
2.)as blood passes through the capillary near the alveolar sac, there is an inclination for the fluids of the blood(water) to want to slip through because of a ___.
3.)The level of __in this region is greater than other parts of the body and it serves as the osmotic pressure regulator.

Back 146

dry lung
pressure gradient
albumin

Front 147

1.)The higher the albumin level or osmotic pressure, the __the likelihood that water will stay in the capillary
2.)___results when albumin is not made enough by the liver and the water diffuses across
3.)conditions in which pulmonary edema happens?

Back 147

greater
pulmonary edema
high blood pressure, right ventricle is not functioning right

Front 148

1.)The capillaries in the __are more metabolically active than any other place in the body.
2.)Recall that in the lung, ___is converted to __and is a metabolic activity.
3.)The greater the metabolic activity, the greater the opportunity for __.
4.)the red blood cells does not have a nucleus, instead it has a large molecule of?

Back 148

lung
angiotensin I, angiotensin II
genetic mutations
hemoglobin

Front 149

1.)describe what hemoglobin has in it.
2.)if you have one or two heme bound to the oxygen, it is __and if you dont have any it is __
3.)oxygen wants to go into the red blood cell due to 4 things.
5.)oxygen wants to go into hemoglobin due to the gradient, which PO2 is from __mmHg to __mmHg

Back 149

iron, protein and has NH2 and carboxyl groups
oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin
affinity, gradient, temperature, alkalinity
101, 40

Front 150

1.)what is the temperature like in the alveoli?
2.)The environment in and around the alveoli is more __which is considered the reverse Bohr
3.)Bohr Effect-if the pH is acidic, oxygen will want to come out the blood and go into the ___

Back 150

less
alkaline
needy tissue to raise pH

Front 151

1.)The affinity is greater for __than for oxygen
2.)The PO2 in the cell is __mmHg and the PCO2 in the cell is __, because once CO2 is made it must get out there and is 20X soluble, it does not accumulate in there and gets out and accumulates to 45-46 and CO2 goes into blood.

Back 151

carbon monoxide
20, 0

Front 152

1.)what are the 3 methods to transport CO2 around the body, to the lungs.
2.)transportation of CO2 is __% dissolved in plasma of blood, __% carboaminohemoglobin method, and ___% bicarbonate method

Back 152

dissolved in plasma of blood, carboaminohemoglobin method, bicarbonate method.
7, 23, 70

Front 153

Carboainohemoglobin Method
1.)globin is made of?
2.)There is an __group at one end and is says it will hold CO2.
3.)__is when carbon dioxide is on the amino group of the hemoglobin molecule

Back 153

protein
amine
carboaminohemoglobin

Front 154

Bicarbonate Method*****
1.)We will have am enzyme called __which takes a gas and a water and makes carbonic acid.
2.)Carbonic acid doesn't stay together and dissociates to?
3.)The __ ion will slip out and go into the plasma of the blood.
4.)if the bicarbonate slips out, what slips in?

Back 154

carbonic anhydrase
HCO3 and H+
bicarbonate
chloride

Front 155

1.)So if the chloride goes in, __will be in there and it will for hydrochloric acid.
2.)A strong acid dissociates and runs around destroying things and lowering what?
3.)Fortunately, we have __groups on the ends of these proteins and H+ decides to go to that group and act as a buffer because NH2 holds the H+ ions becoming NH3 and acting as an intracellular buffer

Back 155

H+
pH
NH2

Front 156

1.)when your exercising a lot, you are producing acid and you already have something to hold the H+ ions so __ion in the plasma are now buffer because it picks up an H+ ion and becomes H2CO3 to keep from lowing pH

Back 156

bicarbonate

Front 157

1.)when you are alkaline, you have too much what?
2.)Alkaline situation**, as the blood approaches the lung, the __ shifts back in and the __back out and the H+ ion will come down to bicarbonate and make carbonic acid, and then dissociate to water and CO2

Back 157

OH
bicarbonate, chloride